Psychology Perspectives and Brain Functions

Psychology Perspectives

• Biological Perspective focuses on how brain chemistry influences behavior.
• Cognitive Perspective focuses on how we think and reason.
• Sociocultural Perspective focuses on external factors influencing behavior.

Brain and Nervous System

• The brain consumes around 25% of the body's oxygen.
• The brain has an estimated 100 billion nerve cells (neurons).
• Frontal Lobe: Contains the motor cortex.
• Parietal Lobe: Contains the somatosensory cortex.
• Hypothalamus: Associated with sex.
• Hippocampus: Associated with memory.
• Dopamine is a neurotransmitter associated with Parkinson's disease.

Research Methods

• Double-Blind Procedure: Neither the experimenter nor participants know which treatment is being administered.
• Case Studies: In-depth investigations of a specific case or situation.
• Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in its natural setting without intervention.
• Participatory Observation: Observers actively engage with the group being studied.
• Experimental Techniques: Used to determine cause-and-effect relationships.
• Correlational Techniques: Used to predict events.

Neurotransmitters

• Agonists: Increase the activity of neurotransmitters.
• Antagonists: Decrease the activity of neurotransmitters.
• Acetylcholine (ACh): Agonistic to Black Widow spider venom.
• Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA): Agonistic to antianxiety drugs.

Imaging Techniques

• fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging): Less invasive, produces sharper images than PET scans.

Learning and Conditioning

• Classical Conditioning is also known as Pavlovian conditioning.
• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Automatically triggers an unconditioned response (UCR).
• Unconditioned Response (UCR): An automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus.
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral stimulus that becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus.
• Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to a conditioned stimulus.
• Generalization: Responding similarly to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.
• Extinction: Gradual disappearance of a conditioned response.
• Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction.

Reinforcement and Punishment

• Positive Reinforcement: Increases behavior by adding a positive stimulus.
• Negative Reinforcement: Increases behavior by removing an aversive stimulus.
• Positive Punishment: Decreases behavior by adding an aversive stimulus.
• Negative Punishment: Decreases behavior by removing a positive stimulus.
• Fixed-Ratio Schedule of Reinforcement: Reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of responses.
• Primary Reinforcers: Inherently rewarding (food, water).
• Secondary Reinforcers: Learned to be rewarding (money, praise).

Theories of Motivation

• Arousal Theory: Motivation is related to maintaining an optimal level of arousal.
• Yerkes-Dodson Law: Performance increases with arousal up to a certain point, then decreases with further increases in arousal.

Observational Learning

• Modeling: Learning by observing and imitating others.
• Albert Bandura: Famous for his Bobo doll experiment, demonstrating observational learning.
• Instinctual Drift: Tendency for learned behaviors to revert to instinctive behaviors.

Social Psychology

• Media violence increases the likelihood of aggressive behavior, especially in children and adolescents.

Important Terms

• Neuron: Nerve cell.
• Axon: Long, singular fiber extending from the cell body of a neuron.
• Reflex: Automatic, involuntary response to a stimulus.
• Latent Learning: Learning that occurs without immediate reinforcement and is not apparent until there is a need to use it.

Psychology Perspectives

• Biological Perspective: Focuses on how brain chemistry influences behavior.
• Sociocultural Perspective: Explains behavior based on external factors like social norms and cultural influences.
• Cognitive Perspective: Studies how we think and reason.

Brain Anatomy and Function

• Frontal Lobe: Associated with motor cortex, voluntary movement, and higher-order thinking.
• Parietal Lobe: Houses the somatosensory cortex, which processes sensory information like touch and temperature.
• Hypothalamus: Regulates basic drives like hunger, thirst, and sex.
• Hippocampus: Plays a crucial role in memory formation.

Neurotransmitters

• Dopamine: Low levels are linked to Parkinson's disease.
• Acetylcholine (ACh): Black widow spider venom acts as an agonist to ACh.
• GABA: Antianxiety drugs act as agonists to GABA.

Research Methods

• Case Study: An in-depth study of a single individual or group to understand a phenomenon.
• Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in its natural setting without manipulation.
• Participatory Observation: The observer becomes part of the group they are studying.
• Experimental Research: Used to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
• Correlational Research: Used to predict events, but doesn't prove causation.

Brain Imaging Techniques

• fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging): Provides sharper images and is less invasive than PET scans.
• PET (positron emission tomography): Less common due to higher cost and procedural requirements.

Communication Within and Between Neurons

• Within neurons: Communication is electrical.
• Between neurons: Communication is chemical, using neurotransmitters.

Learning Theories

• Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian Conditioning): Learning through association of stimuli.
• Operant Conditioning: Learning based on consequences of behavior.
• Latent Learning: Learning that occurs without immediate reinforcement but is demonstrated later.
• Observational Learning (Modeling): Learning by watching and imitating others.
• Instinctual Drift: The tendency for learned behavior to revert to instinctive behaviors.

Reinforcement and Punishment

• Positive Reinforcement: Increases behavior by adding a desirable stimulus.
• Negative Reinforcement: Increases behavior by removing an aversive stimulus.
• Positive Punishment: Decreases behavior by adding an aversive stimulus.
• Negative Punishment: Decreases behavior by removing a desirable stimulus.

Types of Reinforcers

• Primary Reinforcers: Basic biological needs like food and water.
• Secondary Reinforcers: Learned reinforcers through association with primary reinforcers (e.g., money, praise).

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Fixed-Ratio: Reinforcement after a specific number of responses (e.g., commission for every 10 boxes sold).

Generalization and Discrimination in Conditioning

• Generalization: Responding similarly to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.
• Discrimination: Responding differently to stimuli that are different from the conditioned stimulus.

Media Violence and Aggression

• Research suggests that exposure to media violence increases the likelihood of aggressive behavior.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

• Relates to the arousal theory of motivation: optimal performance occurs at moderate levels of arousal.