Psychology Overview: Behavior & Mental Processes

Psychology: The Scientific Study of Behavior and Mental Processes

• Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
• Two main areas of focus are cognitive (mind and its processes) and physiological (biological processes).

The Four Goals of Psychology

• Description: Gathering and presenting information about behavior.
• Explanation: Seeking to understand the reasons behind behavior.
• • Hypotheses: Educated guesses based on existing knowledge.
• • Theories: Complex explanations based on numerous experimental findings.
• Prediction: Using gathered information to predict future behaviors in similar situations.
• Influence: Using knowledge to influence or control behaviors in helpful ways.

Applied vs. Basic Science

• Applied Science: Using existing knowledge to explain behaviors.
• Basic Science: Conducting research to discover new causes for behaviors.
• Scientific Method: A systematic approach to gathering information and answering questions, minimizing errors and biases.

A Brief History of Psychology

• Ancient Greeks: Believed human lives were controlled by their own minds, not gods.
• • Emphasized rationality and observation as methods for understanding the world.
• Historical Approaches:
  • Structuralism: Focused on the basic elements of conscious experience (Wilhelm Wundt).
  • Introspection: Wundt's method of self-observation, reporting thoughts and feelings.
  • Functionalism: Studied how humans adapt to their environment for survival (William James).
  • Psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud believed unconscious motives and conflicts drive behavior.
  • Free Association: Patients say everything that comes to mind, interpreted to reveal unconscious processes.
  • Dream Analysis: Similar Freudian techniques applied to dreams.
  • Case Studies: Developed personality theories based on extensive observations and records.

Psychology as a Profession

• Psychologist: Trained to observe and analyze behavior patterns.
  • Clinical Psychologists: Provide diagnosis and treatment for mental disorders.
  • Counseling Psychologists: Assist individuals with personal and emotional issues.
  • Other fields: School, Personality, Social, Developmental, Educational, Community, Industrial/Organizational, Environmental, Experimental, Forensic, Health.
• Psychiatry: A medical specialty focusing on the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders.

Psychological Research Methods and Statistics

• Pre-Research Decisions:
  • Specific Question: What is the question being investigated?
  • Finding Evidence: Reviewing existing literature and research.
  • Sample: A smaller group representing the larger population
    • Random Sample: Each individual has an equal chance of being selected.
    • Stratified Sample: Subgroups are represented proportionally.
• Methods of Research:
  • Naturalistic Observation: Observing subjects in their natural setting without interference.
  • Case Studies: Intensive studies of individuals or groups, combining observations, diaries, tests, and interviews.
  • Surveys: Gathering information through questionnaires and interviews.
  • Longitudinal Studies: Studying the same group over time to track changes in behavior or feelings.
    • Time-consuming.
  • Cross-sectional Studies: Comparing data from different age groups to draw conclusions about age-related differences.
    • Less expensive and time-consuming than longitudinal studies.
• Correlation: Measuring the relationship between two variables.
  • Positive Correlation: Both variables increase together.
  • Negative Correlation: One variable increases, the other decreases.
  • Describes relationships, not causes.
• Experiments: Controlling the situation to minimize outside influences.
  • Hypothesis: An educated guess about the relationship between variables.
  • Variables: Conditions and behaviors that change.
    • Independent Variable: Modified to observe effects on the dependent variable.
    • Dependent Variable: Measured to observe how it changes in relation to the independent variable.
  • Experimental Group: Participants exposed to the independent variable.
  • Control Group: Treated similarly to the experimental group, but without the independent variable.
  • Replication: Repeating the experiment to confirm results.
• Ethical Issues:
  • Ethics: Standards for proper and responsible conduct.
  • Minimizing Misleading Results: Ensuring ethical data collection and reporting.
  • Protecting Well-fare and Confidentiality: Ensuring participant safety and privacy.
    • Informed Consent: Participants are informed about the study and give consent.
    • Deception: Only used when necessary, and participants are debriefed afterward.
    • Animal use: Ethical standards for animal research.
    • Human Subjects Committee: Reviews experimental plans for ethical considerations.
• Self-fulfilling Prophecy: Researcher's expectations influence their own behavior and the participants' behavior.
  • Avoiding a Self-fulfilling Prophecy:
    • Single Blind Experiment: Participants unaware of who receives the treatment.
    • Double Blind Experiment: Neither the experimenter nor participants know who receives the treatment.
• Placebo Effect: A change in illness or behavior due to belief in the treatment's effectiveness, rather than the treatment itself.
• Statistics: Branch of mathematics used to organize and evaluate data.
• Descriptive Statistics: Summarizing data using graphs and averages.
  • Frequency Distribution: Arranging data by how often each score occurs.
  • Measures of Central Tendency: Describe the average score.
    • Mode: Most frequent score.
    • Median: Middle score.
    • Mean: Average score.
  • Measures of Variance: Describe the spread of scores.
    • Range: Difference between the highest and lowest scores.
    • Standard Deviation: Average distance of each score from the mean.
• Correlation Coefficient (r): Describes the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables.
  • Positive Correlation (+): Both variables increase together.
  • Negative Correlation (-): One variable increases, the other decreases.
  • Values range between +1 and -1, with 0 indicating a weak correlation.
• Inferential Statistics: Determine whether research data supports a hypothesis or if results are due to chance.
  • Statistical Significance: Results are not due to chance.
  • Probability (p): The likelihood of an event occurring.