Psychology of Framing and Priming

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Questions and Answers

What impact does refraining from eating cookies have on cognitive resources when completing a puzzle?

Increases the chances of success in the puzzle.

Enhances problem-solving capabilities.

Depletes cognitive resources, leading to fewer attempts. (correct)

Has no effect on puzzle attempts.

How do heuristics affect our thinking?

They can make thinking less efficient and prone to errors. (correct)

They always improve the efficiency of complex tasks.

They eliminate the need for cognitive resources entirely.

They provide definitive answers to problems.

What describes the anchoring and adjustment heuristic?

Adjusting beliefs based on an initial idea or value. (correct)

Avoiding distractions to focus on the main argument.

Using recent examples to determine probabilities.

Believing a stereotype based on appearances.

What is the primary concern with the representativeness heuristic?

It can cause judgments based on stereotypes. Signup and view all the answers

What does the availability heuristic rely on?

Immediate examples or recent events. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes a red herring fallacy?

Offering irrelevant information to distract from the argument. Signup and view all the answers

What does a false dichotomy fallacy imply?

Only two options are presented when more exist. Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential disadvantage of using heuristics in decision making?

They may reduce dependency on critical thinking. Signup and view all the answers

What does framing primarily influence in communication?

How the information is perceived and organized Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes priming?

The subconscious influence of prior exposure to stimuli Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes System 1 thinking from System 2 thinking?

System 1 is quick and often unconscious, while System 2 is slow and deliberate Signup and view all the answers

What can lead to cognitive depletion?

Excessive demand on self-control or mental resources Signup and view all the answers

In the Cookies Radish Cognitive Depletion Experiment, what was a key factor influencing the participants' performance on the puzzle?

Whether they consumed cookies or radishes Signup and view all the answers

How does framing impact the perception of the term 'pro-life' compared to 'anti-choice'?

It creates different emotional responses to the same issue Signup and view all the answers

What effect does cognitive depletion have on decision-making?

It diminishes the ability to engage in complex reasoning Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary focus of Daniel Kahneman's work with System 1 and System 2?

Differentiating between fast and slow thinking processes Signup and view all the answers

What is the Ad Hominem Fallacy?

An argument based on the characteristics of the speaker rather than the argument itself. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the Slippery Slope Fallacy?

A belief that a small action will trigger a series of negative events. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the Appeal to Authority Fallacy?

It claims something is true solely because an authority figure supports it. Signup and view all the answers

Which example best illustrates the Bandwagon Logical Fallacy?

Assuming everyone believes in a product because a celebrity endorsed it. Signup and view all the answers

What does the Planning Fallacy refer to?

Underestimating the time required to complete a task. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement typifies Optimism Bias?

Assuming divorce is unlikely for you despite statistics. Signup and view all the answers

What is Choice Architecture?

A technique that organizes decision contexts to influence choices. Signup and view all the answers

How does the Planning Fallacy specifically apply to students?

They significantly underestimate the time for assignments. Signup and view all the answers

How do mental shortcuts like heuristics contribute to cognitive efficiency?

Heuristics help save cognitive resources, allowing individuals to focus on more complex tasks. Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of an extreme initial anchor in negotiations?

An extreme initial anchor can create large disparities in negotiation outcomes. Signup and view all the answers

Why might the representativeness heuristic lead to inaccurate judgments?

It relies on stereotypes, causing assumptions based on limited characteristics. Signup and view all the answers

How does the availability heuristic influence decision-making?

It causes individuals to base decisions on recent examples that readily come to mind. Signup and view all the answers

In what way does a red herring fallacy distract from a discussion?

It introduces irrelevant information that shifts focus away from the main argument. Signup and view all the answers

What effect does framing have when presenting a false dichotomy fallacy?

Framing forces a choice between two options, ignoring other possibilities. Signup and view all the answers

How can heuristics sometimes lead to cognitive depletion?

Overreliance on heuristics can exhaust mental resources, particularly when faced with complex tasks. Signup and view all the answers

What role does the availability heuristic play in emotional responses?

It can amplify emotional responses based on vivid recent events, like news stories. Signup and view all the answers

How does framing affect the interpretation of a message?

Framing influences how a message is perceived, potentially leading to different interpretations based on the context or language used. Signup and view all the answers

What role does priming play in decision-making?

Priming affects decision-making by subtly influencing responses and thoughts through prior exposure to related stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the differences between System 1 and System 2 thinking.

System 1 is fast and intuitive, used for simple, everyday tasks, while System 2 is slower and more deliberate, applied to complex decisions. Signup and view all the answers

What is cognitive depletion and how can it affect behavior?

Cognitive depletion is the reduction of self-control and mental resources, resulting in impaired decision-making and problem-solving abilities. Signup and view all the answers

In the Cookies Radish Experiment, what was the significance of the tasks faced by participants?

Participants who resisted eating cookies were less persistent when faced with a challenging puzzle, demonstrating the effects of cognitive depletion. Signup and view all the answers

How might the framing of immigration issues influence public policy perceptions?

Framing immigration as a security threat rather than xenophobia can lead to stricter policies and negative public attitudes. Signup and view all the answers

What are the implications of cognitive resources being limited according to Kahneman?

The limitation of cognitive resources implies that individuals often default to System 1 thinking to save mental effort, potentially leading to biased decisions. Signup and view all the answers

What effect does seeing restaurant commercials have on consumer behavior, according to priming?

Seeing restaurant commercials primes individuals to prefer dining out over cooking at home, influencing their immediate choices. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main issue with the Appeal to Authority Fallacy?

The main issue is that it accepts something as true simply because an authority figure said it, even if they aren't an expert on the subject. Signup and view all the answers

Explain how the Slippery Slope Fallacy can affect decision-making.

The Slippery Slope Fallacy can lead people to believe that one small action will inevitably lead to a severe outcome, often causing them to avoid taking any necessary action. Signup and view all the answers

Describe a real-life scenario where the Bandwagon Logical Fallacy might occur.

A real-life scenario could be someone starting to believe a new diet is effective simply because many people are following it without researching its efficacy. Signup and view all the answers

What is the Planning Fallacy, and how may it impact students?

The Planning Fallacy refers to the tendency to underestimate the time needed to complete tasks, which can lead students to mismanage their time and miss deadlines. Signup and view all the answers

How does the Optimism Bias influence individual perceptions of risk?

Optimism Bias leads individuals to believe they are less likely to experience negative events compared to others, affecting their risk assessment. Signup and view all the answers

In what way can Choice Architecture be used in marketing?

Choice Architecture can be used by positioning products in a way that influences consumer choices, such as placing healthier options at eye level. Signup and view all the answers

Give an example of the Ad Hominem Fallacy in a debate.

An example would be discrediting a speaker's argument about climate change by calling them a hypocrite for using plastic products. Signup and view all the answers

What key effect does the Bandwagon Fallacy have on public opinion?

The Bandwagon Fallacy can create a false sense of consensus, leading individuals to adopt beliefs or behaviors simply because they perceive others doing so. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Framing

How individuals perceive, organize, and deliver information.
Creates a structure for how others perceive the message being communicated.
The same message can result in different effects depending on the frame used.
Frames influence how individuals interpret and understand information.
Examples:
- Framing someone as "pro-life" versus "anti-choice" when discussing abortion.
- Describing ice cream as "20% fat free" rather than "80% fat" to create a different perception.
- Presenting anti-immigration as a security threat instead of using terms like "xenophobia".

Priming

Exposure to an idea or stimulus influences later responses or actions, often subconsciously.
Examples:
- Seeing pictures of oranges increases the likelihood of naming "oranges" as a food item.
- Exposure to numerous restaurant commercials may make individuals more likely to eat out.

Systems 1 and 2 (Daniel Kahneman)

System 1: Rapid thinking process used for simple everyday tasks.
- Example: Driving in a familiar neighborhood.
System 2: Slow and deliberate thinking process used for complex tasks, requiring effort.
- Example: Solving a lengthy math equation.
Using System 2 comes at a cost because of limited cognitive resources.
Most decision-making utilizes System 1 due to its efficiency in saving mental resources for System 2 tasks.

Cognitive Depletion

Loss of self-control or the ability to utilize System 2, occurring when cognitive resources are depleted.

Cookies/Radish Cognitive Depletion Experiment (Baumister)

Participants in a waiting room were offered cookies or radishes.
Some were allowed to eat cookies, while others had to use self-control and choose radishes.
Participants then completed an unsolvable puzzle, unknowingly related to the experiment.
Those who had to resist the cookies made fewer attempts to complete the puzzle because their cognitive resources were depleted.
This suggests that engaging in self-control can deplete cognitive resources.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts used by System 1 to conserve cognitive resources.
Heuristics can make thinking less efficient and increase susceptibility to errors.
However, they are necessary to save mental resources for more complex tasks and prevent cognitive depletion.

Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic

Individuals begin with an initial idea (anchor) and adjust their beliefs based on this starting point.
This is prevalent in negotiations.
A far-off initial anchor can lead to significant discrepancies.
Examples:
- Rejecting job offers below a perceived value, even if reasonable.
- Being more inclined to buy an item after seeing both the original price and the sale price.

Representativeness Heuristic

Making judgments based on stereotypes or mental prototypes.
The prototype becomes representative of anyone who fits the parameters.
Examples:
- Assuming anyone dressed in a suit and tie carrying a briefcase is a businessperson.
- Believing someone with torn clothes is homeless.

Availability Heuristic (Recency Bias)

Using immediate examples or recent events when discussing a topic or making a decision.
Example: News about a recent bear attack could increase the likelihood of mentioning the danger of bears during a discussion about animals.

Fallacies

Faulty reasoning or judgment errors, especially in argument construction.
Often go unnoticed unless critically examined.

Red Herring Fallacy

Distracting from the topic or argument at hand.
Example: Shifting a kneeling protest narrative from police brutality to respecting the flag.

False Dichotomy Fallacy

Framing an issue as having only two options when more possibilities exist.
Example: Presenting a choice between being an introvert or an extrovert.

Ad Hominem Fallacy

Using a personal attack unrelated to the argument.
Example: Insulting someone's appearance during an argument about TV shows.

Slippery Slope Fallacy

Believing that an initial action will automatically lead to a chain reaction of negative consequences.
Example: The idea that trying marijuana once will inevitably lead to heroin addiction.

Appeal to Authority Fallacy

Asserting something is true solely because an authority figure claimed it.
This occurs even when the authority isn't an expert on the subject.
Example: Accepting a scientist's claim about viruses based on their expertise in bacterial infections.

Bandwagon Logical Fallacy

Believing something must be true because many people say or do it.
This often starts with someone disseminating information that takes on a life of its own.
Examples:
- Believing the need to drink eight glasses of water daily based on widespread belief.
- Accepting that a beach has a defecation issue due to social media chatter.

The Planning Fallacy

Underestimating the time required to complete a task.
This applies only to completing one's own tasks.
Example: Students often underestimate the time needed to finish assignments.

Optimism Bias

Believing that one is less likely to experience negative events.
Example: Despite knowing that 50% of marriages end in divorce, individuals still get married with high optimism.

Choice Architecture

A framing technique where the context of another person's decision-making is organized.
Choice architecture "nudges" individuals towards certain choices while still preserving their autonomy.
Examples:
- Positioning grocery products on shelves to influence choices.
- Using smaller cups to discourage excessive beverage consumption.

Choice Architecture Continued

Employers often utilize choice architecture when managing RRSP (retirement savings) payments.

Framing

The way we perceive, organize, and deliver information
We shape the way information is perceived by establishing a framework
Framing is based on establishing a framework for how others perceive communication.
Same message can produce different effects when framed differently.
Frames can dictate how people interpret and see information

Framing Examples

Framing someone as "pro-life" rather than "anti-choice" or "pro-choice" versus "anti-life."
Marketing ice cream as "20% fat free" versus "80% fat"
Framing anti-immigration as a security threat versus xenophobia.

Priming

Exposure to an idea or stimulus influences later responses or actions, typically subconsciously.
Seeing pictures of oranges makes you more likely to say oranges when asked to name a food item.
Seeing restaurant commercials all day can make you more likely to eat out than cook at home.

System 1 and System 2 (Daniel Kahneman)

System 1: Fast, instinctive thinking used for everyday tasks.
System 2: Slow, deliberate thinking for complex tasks that require effort.
System 2 thinking uses cognitive resources.
Most decision-making relies on System 1 to conserve resources for System 2.

Cognitive Depletion

Occurs when our cognitive resources are exhausted, resulting in a loss of self-control or ability to use System 2.

Cookies Radish Cognitive Depletion Experiment (Baumister)

Participants were put in a waiting room with cookies and radishes.
Some participants ate cookies, while others were offered radishes to exercise self-control (System 2)
Participants were then asked to complete an impossible puzzle, unaware it was part of an experiment.

Chocolate/Radish Cognitive Depletion Experiment (Baumister)

Participants who restrained themselves from eating cookies made fewer attempts to complete the puzzle, as their cognitive resources were depleted during the waiting phase.
Those who consumed radishes had a diminished capacity to engage in complex tasks.