Psychology of Elimination Disorders and Food Allergies
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Questions and Answers

What is a significant drawback of mothers with children under 6 being employed?

  • Enhanced gender stereotypes
  • Less time for children (correct)
  • Increased father involvement
  • Greater maternal job satisfaction

    • At what teacher-to-child ratio is the care for children aged 15 months to 2 years maintained?

  • 4:1
  • 8:1
  • 5:1 (correct)
  • 10:1

    • What effect does toxic stress have on a child's development?

  • Reduces the size of the hippocampus (correct)
  • Promotes strong coping mechanisms
  • Enhances cognitive abilities
  • Increases socialization skills

    • Which of the following is most commonly cited as a type of child maltreatment?

    <p>Neglect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Piaget's Preoperational Stage, what cognitive limitation is characterized by a focus on one characteristic of an object?

    <p>Centration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the definition of enuresis?

    <p>The repeated voiding of urine into bed or clothes after the age of 5.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following food items is least commonly associated with food allergies?

    <p>Apples</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the estimated prevalence of encopresis among 5 year olds?

    <p>1%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age do children typically begin to describe themselves with superficial characteristics?

    <p>2 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How much did the prevalence of food allergies among children increase between 1997 and 2007?

    <p>18%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about enuresis is correct regarding its prevalence in 10 year olds?

    <p>It affects 3%-5% of 10 year olds.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Children with food allergies are more likely to have which of the following conditions?

    <p>Asthma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following actions can typically indicate readiness for potty training in young children?

    <p>Staying dry for longer than 2 hours.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential long-term effect on a child who is punished for taking initiative?

    <p>They will experience feelings of guilt affecting self-directed activities.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of play involves watching others play without direct participation?

    <p>Onlooker play</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What basic strength is associated with the ability to set and pursue goals according to Erikson's theory?

    <p>Purpose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of children lived with two parents in a first marriage in 2014?

    <p>46%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes 'cooperative play'?

    <p>Working together with others towards a common goal.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of the 'baby boomers' generation regarding birth rates?

    <p>An average of 4 births per woman.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of play could be described as 'pretend play' involving symbolism?

    <p>Symbolic play</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What impact do single parents generally have on child outcomes?

    <p>Higher rates of adjustment problems and anti-social behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which generation saw an increase in the percentage of children living with cohabiting parents by 2014?

    <p>Millennials</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age do children typically begin to describe themselves in relation to others?

    <p>10 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a component of self-control?

    <p>Response initiation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of self does self-esteem refer to?

    <p>Judgments about one's worth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which developmental stage do children experience Initiative vs Guilt according to Erikson?

    <p>Early childhood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor does NOT influence self-esteem as mentioned in the content?

    <p>Peer interaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What typically characterizes young children's self-image?

    <p>Positive and inflated</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is meant by 'delayed gratification' in the context of self-control?

    <p>The ability to wait for a larger reward instead of taking a smaller, immediate one</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following does NOT describe aspects of a well-adjusted person with higher self-esteem?

    <p>Withdrawn</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do younger children typically mean when they say, 'I am smart and am nice'?

    <p>They are describing both external and internal qualities.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary function of the categorical self in child development?

    <p>Focusing on external qualities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common outcome of sibling relationships during middle childhood and adolescence?

    <p>Control over social situations and companionship</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which parenting style is characterized by being both supportive and demanding?

    <p>Authoritative Parenting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What parenting style is prevalent in collectivistic cultures such as Korea or China?

    <p>Authoritarian Parenting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does less education correlate with social support in individualistic societies?

    <p>It can result in decreased levels of social support.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does cooperative and pretend play in early sibling relationships have on children?

    <p>It fosters skills of empathy, sharing, and cooperation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a fundamental difference between authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles?

    <p>Authoritative parenting promotes bidirectional communication whereas authoritarian relies on unidirectional communication.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of parenting styles, what does 'uninvolved parenting' imply?

    <p>Parents are neglectful and not engaged with child's needs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is NOT typically identified as influencing sibling relationship dynamics in early childhood?

    <p>Sibling birth order</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What impact does poverty have on the availability of social support?

    <p>It negatively impacts social support accessibility.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines the degree of support in parenting styles according to Baumrind?

    <p>The extent of warmth and acceptance versus rejection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one key characteristic of overregularization errors in language development?

    <p>Applying plural rules to irregular nouns</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following principles of counting emphasizes that numbers can be stated in any order while counting objects?

    <p>Order irrelevance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which stage of reading development is a child expected to develop phonological recoding skills?

    <p>Stage 1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What describes a significant characteristic of Autism Spectrum Disorder?

    <p>Social deficits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which principle of counting relates to the idea that the last number stated represents the total number of objects in a set?

    <p>Cardinality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age do children typically begin to hop and stand on one foot for a certain duration?

    <p>4 years old</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors does not affect physical growth in children?

    <p>Physical activity levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    By what percentage of their adult weight do children typically reach at the age of 6?

    <p>95%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the average age at which boys are typically toilet trained?

    <p>31 months</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which developmental area shows significant refinement and is associated with dexterity, strength, and endurance in young children?

    <p>Fine motor skills</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what order does brain development progress in children?

    <p>Back to front</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following activities is least likely to support the development of gross motor skills?

    <p>Sitting and coloring</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of a child's readiness for toilet training is prioritized over age?

    <p>Emotional stability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of enuresis in children over the age of 5?

    <p>Repeated voiding of urine in bed or clothes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following foods is least commonly associated with food allergies?

    <p>Apples</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the prevalence of food allergies among children and adolescents?

    <p>2% to 4%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age does encopresis most commonly occur in children?

    <p>5 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which behavior is a potential indicator that a child is ready for potty training?

    <p>Expressing discomfort with wet clothes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common reaction of a child experiencing food allergies during an immune response?

    <p>Anaphylaxis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the percentage range of children aged 5 that may experience enuresis?

    <p>5% to 10%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which population is more likely to experience encopresis?

    <p>Males</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What developmental characteristic do children display around the age of 2 when describing themselves?

    <p>Focus on superficial traits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What change occurred in the prevalence of food allergies among children from 1997 to 2007?

    <p>Increased by 18%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do temperament and family context influence sibling relationships in early childhood?

    <p>They impact collaboration and sharing behaviors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best illustrates the concept of authoritarian parenting?

    <p>Power-assertive tactics with little emotional warmth.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines the parenting style known as permissive parenting?

    <p>Indulgence with minimal control attempts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is true about the cultural influences on parenting styles?

    <p>In individualistic cultures, such as the USA, authoritative parenting is favored.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factor contributes to the enhancement of social situations managed by siblings during middle childhood?

    <p>Control over the choice of games and activities.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Baumrind's parenting styles, which style is marked by high warmth yet low demands?

    <p>Permissive Parenting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of uninvolved parenting?

    <p>A relationship that is rejecting and neglectful.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can be inferred about poverty's influence on children's social support?

    <p>Poverty often limits access to emotional and material support.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does parental rejection affect the development of children in early relationships?

    <p>It can lead to difficulties in forming emotional bonds.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which outcome is most closely associated with cooperative and pretend play during early sibling interactions?

    <p>Enhanced understanding of empathy and sharing.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a consequence of increased father involvement due to mothers being employed?

    <p>Development of fewer gender stereotypes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the teacher-to-child ratio for children aged 3-4 years according to the guidelines provided?

    <p>10:1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of development can toxic stress significantly affect in children?

    <p>Emotional resilience</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which form of child maltreatment is recognized as the most prevalent?

    <p>Neglect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Piaget’s Preoperational Stage, what is the key limitation related to understanding other perspectives?

    <p>Egocentrism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant impact of domestic abuse on child psychological welfare?

    <p>Increased aggressiveness and anxiety</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Vygotsky's theory, what is crucial for effective learning?

    <p>Working within the Zone of Proximal Development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements accurately reflects the concept of conservation in Piaget's theory?

    <p>Children can recognize that altering an object's appearance does not change its quantity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What long-lasting effect may occur in children who experience toxic stress during critical developmental periods?

    <p>Reduced size of the hippocampus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which developmental aspect is particularly impacted by the challenges of family-work conflicts faced by employed mothers?

    <p>Children's socialization and behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which counting principle asserts that each object should be paired with a distinct numerical label?

    <p>One-to-one correspondence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which stage of reading development do children primarily learn to understand different perspectives in written text?

    <p>Stage 4</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What best describes the characteristic repetitive behaviors associated with Autism Spectrum Disorder?

    <p>Stereotyped movements</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which principle relates to the idea that the sequence in which objects are counted does not affect the total count?

    <p>Order irrelevance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following processes involves recognizing the individual sounds that make up words?

    <p>Phonemic awareness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What developmental milestone is associated with a 4-year-old child regarding gross motor skills?

    <p>Hops and stands on one foot for up to 2 seconds</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a primary reason for the prolonged physical immaturity observed in humans compared to other species?

    <p>The greater size of the human brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    By what age do most children achieve toilet training, assuming they are physically and emotionally ready?

    <p>36 months</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what percentage of its adult weight is the brain expected to be at age 6?

    <p>95%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors that influence physical growth directly relates to emotional health?

    <p>Emotional well-being</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area of the brain is the first to mature and is responsible for higher cognitive functions?

    <p>Frontal lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following activities is not typically recommended to support the development of gross motor skills in early childhood?

    <p>Solitary drawing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is the typical age range for showing interest in potty training?

    <p>18 to 24 months</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does enuresis refer to in children?

    <p>Repeated voiding of urine into bed or clothes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements best describes encopresis?

    <p>It involves the passage of feces into inappropriate places</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which food allergy is commonly associated with severe allergic reactions such as anaphylaxis?

    <p>Fish</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age range is the prevalence of food allergies approximately 4% in children and adolescents?

    <p>6-12 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate prevalence percentage of enuresis among 10-year-olds?

    <p>3%-5%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic do young children initially focus on when describing themselves?

    <p>Superficial characteristics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do cultural influences differentiate parenting styles between individualistic and collectivistic societies?

    <p>Individualistic societies prefer authoritative parenting, while collectivistic cultures favor authoritarian styles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factor significantly increases the likelihood of a child having asthma?

    <p>Food allergies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of authoritarian parenting as described by Baumrind?

    <p>Control is maintained without emotional support or responsiveness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best represents a typical symptom of food allergies?

    <p>Anaphylaxis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How was the prevalence of food allergies among children affected during the period of 1997-2007?

    <p>It increased by 18%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which parenting style is characterized by low demands and high support?

    <p>Permissive Parenting.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do temperament and parenting play in early sibling relationships?

    <p>They greatly influence cooperation and conflict resolution among siblings.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which phase do sibling relationships typically transition from cooperative and pretend play to emotional support?

    <p>Middle Childhood.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a fundamental aspect of uninvolved parenting?

    <p>It is characterized by emotional rejection and lack of engagement.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common sign that a child may be ready for potty training?

    <p>Showing discomfort with wet diapers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is often the outcome of poverty on social support systems?

    <p>Reduced availability and reliability of support networks.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which stage of development is cooperative and pretend play particularly impactful on learning skills like empathy?

    <p>Early Childhood.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is not a key dimension of parenting style according to Baumrind?

    <p>Educational involvement.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which benefit associated with mothers working when they have children under 6 contributes to improving social dynamics in families?

    <p>Increased father involvement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Vygotsky's theory, the Zone of Proximodal Development allows for what type of learning?

    <p>Learning tasks that are manageable with assistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the teacher-to-child ratio for children aged 3-4 years?

    <p>10:1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of cognitive development is most hampered by a child's egocentrism during Piaget's Preoperational Stage?

    <p>Comprehending dual representation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does toxic stress potentially affect the hippocampus in children?

    <p>It reduces the size and memory abilities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant emotional effect on children exposed to domestic abuse?

    <p>Heightened levels of anxiety and aggressiveness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic defines the concept of conservation in early childhood cognitive development?

    <p>Grasping that quantity remains the same despite changes in form</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of stress is characterized by providing opportunities to build coping skills?

    <p>Normal everyday stress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is recognized as the most common type of child maltreatment?

    <p>Neglect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which representation is involved in Piaget's concept of dual representation?

    <p>Understanding that one object can represent another</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Elimination Disorders

    • Enuresis: The repeated voiding of urine into bed or clothes after the age of 5
      • Prevalence:
        • 5%-10% for 5 year olds
        • 3%-5% for 10 year olds
        • 1% for those 15 or older
    • Encopresis: The repeated passages of feces into inappropriate places
      • Prevalence:
        • 1% for 5 year olds
        • More common in males

    Food Allergies

    • Occurs when the body has a specific and reproducible immune response to certain foods
    • Response of the body includes anaphylaxis
    • Immune systems mistakenly respond to food as if it were harmful
    • Most common food allergies: Milk, Eggs, Fish, Crustacean Shellfish, Wheat, Soy, Peanuts, and Tree nuts
    • Facts:
      • Children with food allergies are 2 to 4 times more likely to have asthma or other allergic conditions
      • The prevalence of food allergies among children increased 18% during 1997-2007
      • Approximately 4% of children and adolescents are affected by food allergies

    Self-Description Development

    • Initially focused on superficial characteristics or behaviors
      • 2 years old: "My name is Skyler. I am a boy"
    • Become more focused on psychological features and more situational
      • 5-7 years old: "I am smart and am nice"
    • Begin to describe themselves in relation to others
      • 10 years old: "I am smarter than most other kids, but not as good at baseball as my friends"

    Self-Esteem

    • Self-concept: Our self-description according to categories such as external and internal qualities
    • Self-Esteem: Judgments we make about our own worth
      • Feeling about those judgments
      • Includes global appraisal and judgments of different aspects of self
    • Categorical-Self: Focusing on external qualities

    Influences on Self-Esteem

    • Age, school transitions
      • Young children tend to have positive self-image (4 years old)
    • Culture
    • Child-rearing practices
    • Higher self-esteem is linked to:
      • Well-adjusted
      • Sociable
      • Conscientious

    Self-Control

    • Consists of:
      • Response initiation: The ability to refrain from responding until you have all of the information
      • Response inhibition: The ability to stop a behavior that has already begun
      • Delayed gratification: The ability to hold out for a larger reward, forgoing a smaller immediate reward

    Erikson: Initiative vs Guilt (Ages 3-5)

    • If the child explores, makes decisions, and initiates activities, they achieve initiative.
    • If initiation is repressed through criticism and control, the child develops a sense of guilt.
    • Child expresses a desire to take initiative in activities and control their environment.
    • Parents punishing child for initiative can lead to feelings of guilt, affecting self-directed activity throughout life.
    • Basic strength: purpose - the courage to envision and pursue goals

    Types of Play

    • NonSocial Play
      • Unoccupied Play: Random behavior, not organized play
      • Solitary Play: Child is playing by themselves
      • Onlooker Play: Watching other kids play
    • Social Play
      • Parallel Play: Playing with your own toys by yourself but in the same room as somebody else
      • Associative Play: Interacting and sharing toys but still playing on your own
      • Cooperative Play: Working together

    Piaget’s Stages of Play

    • Functional Play: Exploring surroundings
    • Symbolic Play: Pretend play
      • Examples: Puppets
    • Constructive Play: Assemble or create objects
      • Examples: Legos
    • Games with rules: Everyone must follow rules
      • Examples: Board games

    Diverse Family Forms / Family Structure

    • Change in family structure: Size
      • Baby Boomers: 4 births per woman
      • Generation X: 2.5 births per woman
      • Millennials: 2 births per woman
      • Generation Z: 1.7 births per woman
      • Overall decline in births since baby boomers
    • Change in Family Structure: Parental Unit
      • Two parents in First Marriage:
        • 1960 → 73%
        • 1980 → 61%
        • 2014 → 46%
      • Two parents in Remarriage:
        • 1960 → 14%
        • 1980 → 15%
        • 2014 → 7%
      • Cohabiting Parents:
        • 1960 → 9%
        • 1980 → 16%
        • 2014 → 26%
      • Single Parent:
        • 1960 → 0%
        • 1980 → 5%
        • 2014 → 5%

    Single Parents

    • Poor child outcomes:
      • Adjustment problems
      • Anti-social behavior
      • Cognitive difficulties
    • Potential mechanisms:
      • Less social support
      • Less education
      • Less employment
      • Poverty

    Sibling Relationships

    • Early:
      • Cooperative and pretend play can teach empathy, sharing, and cooperation
      • Temperament, parenting, and family context affect relationship disputes
    • Middle Childhood/Adolescence:
      • Control over social situations (e.g., what games to play, disagreements about facts or opinions, or rude behavior)
      • Provide companionship and emotional support

    Parenting Styles

    • Focus on two important dimensions:
      • Degree of support: Acceptance and warmth versus parental rejection and non-responsiveness
      • Degree of demand: Parental control versus unstructured

    Baumrind’s Parenting Styles

    • Authoritative Parenting: Supportive and Demanding ("Relationship is reciprocal, responsible, high in bidirectional communication")
    • Authoritarian Parenting: Unsupportive and Demanding ("Relationship is controlling, power-assertive; high in unidirectional communication")
    • Permissive Parenting: Supportive and Undemanding ("Relationship is indulgent; low in control attempts")
    • Uninvolved Parenting: Unsupportive and Undemanding ("Relationship is rejecting or neglecting; disengaged")

    Cultural Influences on Parenting Styles

    • Individualistic (e.g., USA): Authoritative parenting
    • **Collectivistic **(e.g., China, Korea): Authoritarian parenting

    Maternal Employment and Child Development

    • 66.4% of U.S. mothers with children under 6 are employed
    • Advantages:
      • Fewer gender stereotypes
      • More father involvement
    • Drawbacks:
      • Less time for children
      • Family-work conflicts
    • Major factors:
      • Maternal job satisfaction
      • Quality of care of child

    Quality of Care

    • Teacher-to-child ratio:
      • 6 weeks - 15 months: 4:1
      • 15 months - 2 years: 5:1
      • 2-3 years: 8:1
      • 3-4 years: 10:1
      • 5 years and up: 20:1

    Childhood Stress and Development

    • Normal everyday stress: Provides an opportunity to build coping skills, poses little risk to development
    • Toxic stress: Extremely stressful situations of abuse over long periods of time, long-lasting effects:
      • Hippocampus & amygdala vulnerability: Can reduce the size of the hippocampus and affect a child’s memory abilities
      • Reduced immunity: Stress hormones can reduce immunity to disease
      • Hypersensitivity: Severe stress can develop a low threshold, making the child hypersensitive to stress in the future
    • Stressors examples:
      • Financial problems
      • Parental mental health issues
      • Natural disasters

    Effects of Domestic Abuse

    • Victims of domestic abuse suffer in developmental and psychological welfare
    • Impacts a child's development:
      • Emotionally: Increased aggressiveness, anxiety, changes in child socialization
      • Socially:
      • Behaviorally:
      • Cognitively:

    Child Maltreatment

    • Physical:
    • Sexual:
      • 15%-25% of women
      • 5%-15% of men
    • Emotional:
    • Neglect: Most common type

    Piaget’s Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)

    • Development in:
      • Symbolic/pretend play: Dual representation
    • Weakness in:
      • Egocentrism: The 3 mountain task, taking other people’s perspectives
    • Conservation: The ability to recognize that moving or rearranging matter does not change the quantity
      • Children in the preoperational stage cannot pass conservation
    • Centration: Children focus on one characteristic of an object to the exclusion of others

    Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development

    • Zone of Proximal Development: Present throughout life, can be used anytime
    • Most learning happens when working on a task that can be done by yourself, but is not so difficult that it can never be done.

    Physical Development in Early Childhood

    • Gross Motor Skills Milestones:
      • 3 Years: Climbs with ease, runs effortlessly, pedals a tricycle, ascends and descends stairs, one foot per step.
      • 4 Years: Hops and balances on one foot for 2 seconds, catches a bounced ball most times.
      • 5 Years: Balances on one foot for 10 seconds, hops and skips, performs a somersault, uses the toilet independently, swings, climbs, and engages in ball play.
    • Fine Motor Skills: Continue to refine with increasing dexterity, strength, and endurance.
    • Period of Physical Growth:
      • Species Variations: Physical growth and maturity differ across species; mice mature in a few weeks (2% of lifespan), chimpanzees in 7 years (16%), while humans take 20%.
      • Adaptive Prolonged Immaturity in Humans: Humans' prolonged physical growth is linked to brain size and development, allowing for extended cognitive learning.
    • Factors Influencing Physical Growth:
      • Heredity: Genetics play a significant role in physical development.
      • Nutrition: Adequate nourishment is crucial for growth and health.
      • Infectious Disease: Infections can hinder physical development.
      • Emotional Well-being: Secure emotional environments promote healthy growth.
    • Brain Maturation:
      • Development Order: Brain areas develop from back to front: frontal lobe (higher cognitive functions) first, then parietal, occipital (visual cortex), and finally temporal (auditory cortex).
      • Brain Weight:
        • 2 years: 75% of adult weight.
        • 6 years: 95% of adult weight.
    • Toilet Training:
      • Typical Age: Training typically commences after the second birthday, though some children show interest earlier.
      • Average Ages: Girls typically train around 29 months, boys around 31 months.
      • Readiness: Child's physical and emotional readiness is more crucial than age.
      • Training Readiness Indicators: Interest in potty, understanding directions, communication of needs, staying dry for periods, discomfort with dirty diapers, independent pants management, and sitting on and rising from the potty chair.
    • Elimination Disorders:
      • Enuresis: Repeated bed-wetting or soiling of clothing after age 5, affecting 5-10% of 5-year-olds, 3-5% of 10-year-olds, and 1% of those 15 or older.
      • Encopresis: Repeated soiling of inappropriate places with feces, affecting 1% of 5-year-olds, more common in males.
    • Food Allergies:
      • Immune Response: The body's immune system mistakenly identifies specific foods as harmful, triggering an immune response, including potentially life-threatening anaphylaxis.
      • Common Allergens: Milk, eggs, fish, shellfish, wheat, soy, peanuts, and tree nuts.
      • Prevalence and Association: Children with food allergies are 2-4 times more likely to have asthma or other allergies, with prevalence increasing 18% from 1997 to 2007, affecting approximately 4% of children and adolescents.

    Social and Emotional Development in Early Childhood

    • Self-Description Development:
      • Initial focus on superficial traits ("brown hair") or behaviors ("play baseball").
      • Development of Self-Awareness: Gradually progress to more complex self-descriptions by 4-5 years, reflecting on personality traits like being kind.
    • Sibling Relationships:
      • Early Stages: Encourage cooperation, pretend play, empathy, sharing, and cooperation.
      • Middle Childhood/Adolescence: Control over social situations, provide companionship, and emotional support.
    • Parenting Styles:
      • Dimensions: Degree of support (acceptance and warmth vs. rejection and non-responsiveness) and degree of demand (parental control vs. unstructured).
    • Baumrind's Parenting Styles:
      • Authoritative: Supportive and demanding, reciprocal relationship, high bidirectional communication.
      • Authoritarian: Unsupportive and demanding, controlling, high unidirectional communication.
      • Permissive: Supportive and undemanding, indulgent, low control attempts.
      • Uninvolved: Unsupportive and undemanding, rejecting or neglecting, disengaged.
    • Cultural Influences on Parenting Styles:
      • Individualistic: Authoritative (e.g., USA).
      • Collectivistic: Authoritarian (e.g., China, Korea).
    • Maternal Employment:
      • Prevalence: 66.4% of mothers with children under 6 work outside the home in the USA.
      • Advantages: Fewer gender stereotypes, more father involvement.
      • Drawbacks: Less time with children, family-work conflicts.
      • Key Factors: Maternal job satisfaction and child's quality of care.
    • Quality of Care:
      • Teacher-to-Child Ratios:
        • 6 weeks to 15 months: 4:1
        • 15 months to 2 years: 5:1
        • 2 to 3 years: 8:1
        • 3 to 4 years: 10:1
        • 5 years and up: 20:1
    • Childhood Stress and Development:
      • Normal Stress: Provides opportunities for coping skills development, poses minimal risk.
      • Toxic Stress: Prolonged exposure to extreme stress (abuse), has long-term effects, impacting hippocampus size, memory abilities, immunity, and stress sensitivity.
    • Effects of Domestic Abuse:
      • Impact (Development & Psychological well-being): Children exposed to domestic violence exhibit emotional, social, behavioral, and cognitive difficulties.
    • Child Maltreatment:
      • Forms: Physical, sexual (15-25% of women, 5-15% of men), emotional, and neglect (most common).

    Cognitive Development in Early Childhood

    • Piaget's Preoperational Stage (2-7 Years):
      • Development: Symbolic/pretend play, dual representation.
      • Weaknesses: Egocentrism (inability to take another's perspective, demonstrated by the Three Mountain Task), lack of conservation (understanding that rearranging matter doesn't change quantity), and centration (focusing on one characteristic excluding others).
    • Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development:
      • Zone of Proximal Development: The gap between what a child can do independently and what they can achieve with assistance, a key concept for learning and development.
    • Language Development:
      • Overregularization Errors: Applying grammatical rules to irregular words (e.g., "goed" instead of "went").
    • Mathematics Development:
      • Five Counting Principles (Gelman & Gallistel):
        • One-to-One Correspondence: Each object gets one number word.
        • Stable Order: Numbers recited in consistent order.
        • Cardinality: The final number spoken represents the quantity.
        • Order Irrelevance: Objects can be counted in any order.
        • Abstraction: Any set can be counted.
    • Reading Development:
      • Chronology:
        • Stage 0: Birth to first grade, reading prerequisites.
        • Stage 1: First and second grade, phonological recoding skills.
        • Stage 2: Second and third grade, fluent reading.
        • Stage 3: Fourth to eighth grade, reading to learn.
        • Stage 4: High school, comprehending multiple viewpoints.
      • Phonemic Awareness: Recognizing sounds within words, a strong predictor of reading achievement.
    • Autism Spectrum Disorder:
      • Characteristics: Social deficits, communication difficulties, repetitive behaviors and interests, sensory issues, and cognitive delays.
    • Teaching Strategies for ASD:
      • Visual Aids: Support comprehension.
      • Structured Environments: Provide predictability and routine.
      • Social Skills Training: Develop social interaction skills.
      • Behavioral Interventions: Manage challenging behaviors.

    Physical Growth in Early Childhood

    • Gross motor skills develop quickly in early childhood, with milestones like running, climbing, riding a bike, and throwing a ball emerging.
    • Fine motor skills also improve, allowing children to draw, pour, cut, and grip objects with more dexterity.
    • Toilet training typically occurs around the age of two, with girls generally training slightly earlier than boys.
    • Physical growth is influenced by heredity, nutrition, disease, and emotional well-being, demonstrating the multifaceted nature of development.

    Brain Development in Early Childhood

    • The brain undergoes a rapid period of growth and development during early childhood.
    • Development proceeds from the back to the front of the brain, with the frontal lobe responsible for higher-order cognitive functions developing first.
    • Brain weight increases significantly during this period, reaching 75% of adult weight by age 2 and 95% by age 6.
    • The prefrontal cortex, responsible for executive functions, undergoes significant development, contributing to improved emotional regulation and cognitive abilities.

    Toilet Training in Early Childhood

    • The average age for toilet training is 29 months for girls and 31 months for boys.
    • Most children are toilet trained by 36 months.
    • Readiness for toilet training depends on physical and emotional maturity, not just age.
    • Elimination disorders, such as enuresis (bedwetting) and encopresis (fecal incontinence), can occur in some children.

    Food Allergies in Early Childhood

    • Food allergies are common in early childhood, with 4% of children and adolescents affected.
    • The immune system mistakenly identifies certain foods as harmful, leading to allergic reactions.
    • Common allergens include milk, eggs, fish, shellfish, wheat, soy, peanuts, and tree nuts.
    • Children with food allergies are more likely to have asthma and other allergic conditions.

    Social and Emotional Development in Early Childhood

    • Self-description develops in early childhood, initially focusing on physical characteristics and behaviors.
    • Sibling relationships play a crucial role in social development, providing opportunities for cooperation, empathy, and sharing.
    • Parenting styles influence children's social and emotional development. Baumrind's parenting styles include authoritative (supportive and demanding), authoritarian (unsupportive and demanding), permissive (supportive and undemanding), and uninvolved (unsupportive and undemanding).
    • Cultural influences shape parenting styles, with individualistic cultures favoring authoritative parenting and collectivistic cultures favoring authoritarian parenting.
    • Maternal employment can have both advantages and disadvantages for child development, depending on factors like job satisfaction and childcare quality.
    • High-quality childcare programs are essential for supporting healthy development, with optimal teacher-to-child ratios playing a key role.

    Childhood Stress and Development

    • Everyday stress can be beneficial in developing coping skills.
    • Toxic stress, from prolonged exposure to extreme stressful situations, can have long-lasting effects on brain development, immunity, and emotional regulation.
    • Domestic abuse is a significant source of stress for children, impacting emotional, social, behavioral, and cognitive development.
    • Child maltreatment, including physical, sexual, emotional, and neglect, has severe consequences for children's well-being.

    Cognitive Development in Early Childhood

    • Piaget's preoperational stage (2-7 years) is marked by the development of symbolic play and a growing understanding of language.
    • Children in this stage still struggle with egocentrism, difficulty understanding other people's perspectives.
    • Conservation, the understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance, is challenging for preoperational children due to their reliance on centration (focusing on a single characteristic).
    • Vygotsky's sociocultural theory emphasizes the role of social interaction and cultural tools in shaping cognitive development.
    • The zone of proximal development (ZPD) represents the space between what a child can do independently and what they can achieve with the help of a more knowledgeable individual.

    Language Development in Early Childhood

    • Overregularization errors, such as using "goed" instead of "went," are common during this period as children acquire grammatical rules.
    • Development of complex language skills enables children to communicate effectively, engage in pretend play, and develop social relationships.

    Mathematical Development in Early Childhood

    • Preschoolers acquire five key counting principles: one-to-one correspondence, stable order, cardinality, order irrelevance, and abstraction.
    • These principles lay the foundation for understanding number concepts.

    Reading Development in Early Childhood

    • Reading development progresses through several stages, beginning with reading prerequisites and culminating in the ability to comprehend complex written texts.
    • Phonemic awareness, the understanding of sounds within words, is crucial for decoding and reading fluency.

    Autism Spectrum Disorder

    • Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by social deficits, communication difficulties, repetitive behaviors and interests, sensory sensitivities, and potential cognitive delays.
    • Early intervention is essential to support individuals with ASD.

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    Description

    Explore the intricacies of elimination disorders like enuresis and encopresis, including their prevalence rates among children. Additionally, delve into the world of food allergies, understanding how the immune response can lead to severe reactions. This quiz highlights critical facts and statistics relevant to these topics.

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