Psychology of Altruism & Bystander Behavior

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Questions and Answers

What was the primary finding regarding bystander behavior in the Kitty Genovese case?

  • A large number of bystanders witnessed the attack but did not intervene. (correct)
  • Bystanders quickly called the police.
  • Bystanders were unaware of the events unfolding.
  • Bystanders actively intervened to stop the attack.

According to the content, what immediately followed the initial attack on Kitty Genovese?

  • Kitty Genovese received immediate medical attention.
  • Police arrived at the scene.
  • The attacker left and then returned to attack again. (correct)
  • The attacker was apprehended by neighbors.

What was a significant shift in the focus of psychology during the 1960s, as mentioned in the content?

  • From studying societal concerns, such as aggression and fear, to positive aspects of behavior. (correct)
  • From studying individual behavior to group behavior.
  • From theoretical research to applied research.
  • From studying positive aspects of behavior to negative aspects of behavior.

According to the content what was a factor that pushed the field of psychology to study altruism?

<p>The creation of the Peace Corps. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the evolutionary perspective suggest about altruism in animals, according to Robert Hinde?

<p>Animals can exhibit altruism if defined by the outcome of their actions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the content about the Kitty Genovese case, approximately how far was Kitty parked from her apartment when the attack began?

<p>30 meters (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which event occurred first in the Kitty Genovese case?

<p>A neighbor shouted at the attacker. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the content, how many people witnessed the Kitty Genovese attack?

<p>38 (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Donald O. Hebb, which characteristic is NOT a component of altruistic behavior?

<p>Reinforcement based behavior (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main issue with defining altruism from the perspective of intention when considering non-human animals?

<p>It is too narrow, excluding some types of animal altruism (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which perspective proposes that altruistic behavior ensures the survival of shared genes?

<p>Sociobiological view (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the core idea of Kin Selection Theory?

<p>Altruistic actions only benefit close relatives (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does biological altruism differ from psychological altruism according to the text?

<p>Biological altruism occurs almost automatically while psychological altruism results from cognition (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the evolutionary perspective, why might altruistic behavior potentially disappear over time?

<p>Because altruism reduces the fitness of the gene carrying individuals (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of altruism is most likely to be observed in insects, according to the text?

<p>Biological altruism (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a crucial factor for psychological altruism to occur?

<p>The helper needs to understand the situation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Robert Trivers, what is the primary purpose of the development of cooperation?

<p>To evolve altruistic behaviors among kin. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the sociocultural perspective on altruism?

<p>Cooperation is a learned behavior, reinforced by social norms. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the learning perspective, how does altruistic behavior develop?

<p>Through a gradual shift from external rewards to internalized values. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the decision-making perspective, what factors make helping behavior more likely in an emergency?

<p>The emergency is sudden, the threat is clear, and the victim is helpless. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the attribution perspective, how does the perceived controllability of a need affect helping behavior?

<p>Controllable causes lead to anger, irritation, and avoidance. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the negative-state relief model propose about why we might help a homeless person?

<p>We help in order to avoid negative feelings. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the Decision-making perspective, in which situation is helping behavior less likely?

<p>An uncertain fight situation between two unknown people (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT an influencing factor in the Decision-making perspective related to helping behavior?

<p>The genetic predisposition for altruistic acts. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of kin selection theory?

<p>How behaviors that benefit relatives increase an individual's genetic representation in future generations. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Hamilton's rule suggest about the conditions under which kin selection operates?

<p>Altruism increases when the benefit to the recipient, multiplied by relatedness, exceeds the cost to the actor. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the study in Los Angeles, what factor most strongly correlated with non-reciprocal help?

<p>The degree of genetic relatedness between individuals. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the experiment with the painful skiing position, what was primarily varied to test kin selection?

<p>The degree of genetic relatedness to the recipient of the reward. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the core idea of reciprocal altruism?

<p>The expectation of future acts of altruism from the receiver to the giver. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the negative-state relief model, what primarily motivates helping behavior?

<p>The reduction of one's own negative feelings. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did Darwin's observation of honey bees relate to the concept of kin selection?

<p>He recognized that sterile insects in a hive posed a puzzle to his theory of natural selection. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these behaviors would align with the principles of reciprocal altruism?

<p>Sharing food with a neighbor during a time of need, with the expectation of getting help in the future. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary distinction made by Batson's empathy-altruism model regarding helping behavior?

<p>Whether the helper feels empathy or not for the person in need. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What would be the most likely result of the study on pain endurance with related individuals?

<p>Participants would hold the position longer for siblings compared to cousins. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The genetic determinism model proposes that helping behavior is primarily driven by which motivation?

<p>A subconscious aim to maximize the survival of the helper's genes. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the provided information, what is a common characteristic observed in 'Good Samaritans'?

<p>A strong sense of their own capability. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key difference between how men and women are traditionally viewed in the context of helping behavior according to the text?

<p>Men are often associated with heroic actions, while women are seen to be nurturing. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the research on rescuers of Jews in Nazi Europe suggest about their motivations?

<p>That their motives were influenced by social norms, empathy, compassion, morality, justice, and responsibility. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT stated as an explanation in the content as to why people help others?

<p>To increase their own level of self-esteem. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Based on the information provided, what effect does the presence of others appear to have on bystander intervention?

<p>The presence of others reduces the likelihood of any individual offering help. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Parrot and Giancola's taxonomy, what type of aggression is characterized by a nonverbal communicational act with no direct physical contact between perpetrator and victim and is only in an active form?

<p>Postural aggression (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Parrot and Giancola's framework, which of the following best exemplifies passive verbal aggression?

<p>Refusing to speak to someone when expected to. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of aggression involves intentionally causing harm by taking someone's property?

<p>Active theft (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario best illustrates 'passive damage to property' as described in the provided text?

<p>A person ignores a broken window allowing the elements to cause harm. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of aggression, what distinguishes 'active' forms from 'passive' forms?

<p>Active forms involve direct action, while passive forms involve a lack of action. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the classification of aggressive acts, which of the following is a direct form of aggression?

<p>Damaging a rival’s property. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Releasing private sexually explicit messages, as mentioned in the text, would be categorized as which form of aggression?

<p>Active verbal aggression (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following actions is an example of an 'indirect' aggressive act, according to the taxonomy?

<p>A person spreads rumors about someone. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Altruism

Behavior that benefits another individual at a cost to oneself. It's a central concept in evolutionary psychology, focusing on how altruism can evolve despite the apparent fitness disadvantages.

Kin Selection

The idea that altruism can be explained by the survival of genes shared between individuals. Altruistic behavior towards relatives, even at a cost, can increase the propagation of those genes.

Kin Altruism

Altruistic behavior driven by genetic relatedness, where individuals act to benefit their relatives even if it comes at a cost to their own reproduction.

Psychological Altruism

Altruistic behavior that arises from a conscious understanding of the situation and the intention to help others. This type of altruism requires advanced cognition and social awareness.

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Evolutionary Perspective

A theoretical perspective that explains altruism as a behavior rooted in evolution and influenced by the survival and spread of genes. This view emphasizes the role of genetic relatedness in promoting altruism.

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Sociobiology

The study of the biological and evolutionary bases of social behaviors, including altruism. It seeks to understand how social behaviors evolve and are shaped by natural selection.

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Cognitive Psychology

The study of mental processes and behavior, emphasizing the role of cognition, perception, motivation, and emotion. This perspective explores the psychological factors driving altruistic behavior.

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Biological Altruism

An approach to altruism emphasizing the role of biological factors, particularly evolution and genetics. This perspective highlights the role of kin selection and the benefits it provides for the survival of genes.

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Bystander Apathy

A situation where individuals witnessing an emergency fail to provide help due to the presence of other bystanders. This is often explained by the diffusion of responsibility: individuals feel less personal responsibility to act when others are also present.

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The Kitty Genovese Case

A tragic incident that sparked research on bystander apathy. Kitty Genovese was brutally murdered in 1964 while many neighbors witnessed the event, but none called the police until after her death.

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Evolutionary Perspective of Altruism

A theoretical perspective that focuses on the evolutionary basis of altruism, suggesting that it may have developed as a way to promote survival and reproduction within groups. Altruism towards relatives enhances the survival of shared genes.

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Social Learning Perspective of Altruism

A theoretical perspective that believes altruism is a learned behavior influenced by social norms, values, and cultural expectations. We learn to help others through observation and reward systems.

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Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

A psychological state characterized by strong empathetic connections to those in need. This motivates spontaneous, selfless acts of helping, even at personal cost.

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Social Psychology

A field of psychology that examines the interplay between the individual and their social environment, including the roles of perception, attribution, and social influence on behavior.

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Psychology as a Science

The scientific study of human behavior and mental processes, encompassing varied approaches like biological, cognitive, and social perspectives. This is crucial for understanding altruism and bystander apathy.

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Reciprocal Altruism

A behavior where an organism helps another, even if it reduces its own fitness, with the expectation of being helped back later.

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Relatedness (r)

The degree of genetic relatedness between two individuals. For example, siblings share 50% of their genes, while cousins share 12.5%.

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Hamilton's Rule

A rule that predicts when kin selection will favor altruistic behavior. It states that altruism is favored when the benefit to the recipient (b) multiplied by the degree of relatedness (r) is greater than the cost to the actor (c).

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Social Insect Behavior

The behavior of social (group-living) insects, often characterized by specialized tasks and a division of labor, where some individuals forgo reproduction to help others.

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Workers

Individuals within a social insect colony who specialize in tasks like foraging, defending, or caring for the brood, often at the expense of their own reproduction.

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Queen

The individual within a social insect colony who is responsible for reproduction.

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Reciprocal Altruism (in humans)

A type of altruistic behavior where the recipient is unrelated to the actor, but the cost for the actor is relatively low and the benefit to the recipient is high.

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Physical Aggression

Aggression that involves a harmful physical action causing physical harm or pain.

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Verbal Aggression

Aggression that involves verbal actions intended to cause psychological harm.

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Postural Aggression

Aggression that involves nonverbal communication, but no direct physical contact between the aggressor and victim.

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Damage to Property Aggression

Aggression that involves harming someone's property with the intention of causing harm.

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Theft Aggression

Aggression that involves taking someone's property with the intention of harming them.

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Passive Physical Aggression

Aggression that involves harm caused by a lack of physical activity.

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Passive Verbal Aggression

Aggression that involves harm caused by a lack of verbal interaction.

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Passive Damage to Property Aggression

Aggression that involves harm caused by a lack of intervention when someone's property is being damaged.

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Reinforcement in Learning Perspective

The perspective that explains the development of altruism through the interaction between external rewards and internalized values.

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Sociocultural Perspective on Altruism

Altruism, from this perspective, is shaped by social norms, duties, and the expectation of reciprocation.

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Decision-making Model for Helping (Latané and Darley)

A model that suggests that helping behavior depends on the individual's perception of their own responsibility, competence, and the weight of potential costs compared to benefits.

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Attribution Perspective on Helping

Individuals attribute the need for help to controllable or uncontrollable causes. This influences their decision to help or not.

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Negative-State Relief Model

The theory suggests that people are more likely to help others when they are experiencing negative emotions, such as sadness or guilt, as an attempt to alleviate their own distress.

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Observational Learning in the Learning Perspective

Observing altruistic behavior in others can shape our own choices to help.

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Situational Praise

This type of praise focuses on a specific individual or action. For example, 'You are so helpful for sharing your toys with your friend.'

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Dispositional Praise

This type of praise focuses on character traits of the individual. For example, 'You are such a kind person for sharing your toys with your friend.'

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Genetic Determinism Model

This model suggests that genetic similarities can influence altruistic behavior. We might be more likely to help those who share our genes to promote the survival of those genes.

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Egoism Theory in Prosocial Behaviour

This model explains that people help to reduce the distress they experience when witnessing a negative situation. Helping alleviates their own negative feelings, even if it doesn't directly benefit the person needing help.

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Presence of Others and Helping

This describes how the presence of others can affect our likelihood of helping. The presence of others can inhibit helping, making it less likely for an individual to act.

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Gender Differences in Helping Behaviour

Men are often associated with heroic acts of helping, while women are often seen to be more nurturing in their acts of assistance.

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Personality Characteristics and Helping Behaviour

These are personal characteristics that influence helping behavior. For instance, those who see themselves as competent are more likely to help, while blood donors often identify with the act of giving.

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Study Notes

Affective Psychology

  • Topics covered include altruism, prosocial behavior, and aggression.
  • Required readings for the topic are: Flor, Peplau & Sears (pages 420-431), and Aronson et al., Chapter 8.

Why Do We Give Money to Beggars?

  • Several reasons are behind giving money to beggars.

Helping Behavior

  • Helping behavior in people (and animals) often contradicts basic self-preservation drives and traditional theories of motivation.
  • The advantage of helping behavior isn't always clear, but it may be driven by a range of factors.

Types of Prosocial Behavior

  • Cooperation: Two or more people working together for a shared reward.
  • Helping/Prosocial Behavior: Assistance to another organism where the benefit is for the other organism.
    • Reciprocity: Expecting a later return.
    • Non-reciprocal: Helping without expecting a return, like consoling or sharing.
    • Altruism: Helping at a cost to oneself, like risking one's life to save someone else.

Theoretical Explanations for Prosocial Behavior

  • Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis: Helping motivated by empathy focusing on alleviating the victim's suffering regardless of personal gain.
  • Negative State Relief Model: Helping as a way of reducing personal negative feelings/distress.
  • Genetic Determinism Model: Helping possibly driven by an unconscious desire to help if the victim shares similar genetics.

Studying Altruism Since the 1960s

  • Change of Focus: Shifting from studying aggression and fears to positive aspects of human behavior.
  • Commitment towards the needy (e.g., Peace Corps): A focus on commitment toward those in need.

Theoretical Perspectives on Altruism: Evolutionary Perspective 1

  • Can animals be altruistic?: The ability of animals to display altruistic behavior.
  • Robert Hinde (1974): Altruistic behavior can be observed in animals, defined from the outcome perspective.
  • Genetitians: Care of offspring as a form of altruism.
  • Donald O. Hebb (1971): Intrinsic motivation as a key element of altruism, not dependent on reinforcement.

Theoretical Perspectives on Altruism: Evolutionary Perspective 2

  • Can altruistic behavior have a genetic basis? Arguments for and against the genetic basis of altruism.
  • Against: If some individuals solely possess a selfless gene, the gene may diminish if it leads to self-sacrifice.
  • For: If altruistic genes are present in all members, it benefits the species overall through natural selection affecting entire groups, not just the individual.

Two Basic Approaches of Altruism

  • Biological Altruism (with evolutionary roots in psychology): Explores evolutionary basis in many animals.
  • Psychological Altruism: Explores altruism based on psychological explanations witnessed more strongly in higher-level mammals, relating to the cognition of the helper.

Kin Selection Theory

  • Kin Selection: Evolutionary strategy favoring relatives' reproductive success at the expense of personal survival and reproduction.
  • Kin Altruism: Altruistic behavior driven by kin selection.
  • Darwin: Noted kin selection in honeybees.
  • Hamilton's Rule (1964): Altruistic behavior increases when the genetic relatedness is important between giver and recipient and that benefit to the recipient is greater than reproductive cost for the giver.
  • Experiments (Essock-Vitale et al, 1985): Helping behavior increased proportionally to relatedness in both human samples.

Reciprocal Altruism Theory

  • Reciprocal altruism in evolutionary biology is a behavior where an organism acts in a way that temporarily reduces their fitness while increasing another's fitness, expecting reciprocal behavior in return.
  • Developed by Robert Trivers to explain the evolution of cooperation. Illustrated through both positive and negative examples.

Theoretical Perspectives on Altruism: Sociocultural Perspective

  • Acts of generosity: Cannot be explained by genetics alone.
  • Social Norms of Helping: Culturally common practices like helping parents, teachers, strangers in emergency situations, and picking up litter.
  • Reciprocity: "I scratch your back, you scratch mine".
  • Social Justice Fairness and equitable distribution.

Theoretical Perspectives on Altruism: Learning Perspective

  • Development: from externally rewarded behavior in children to internalized values in adults.
  • Observational learning: Children learn by observing and imitating adults.

Theoretical Perspectives on Helping: Decision-making Perspective

  • Helping Scenarios: Increase in likelihood of helping during sudden emergencies.
  • Victim Factors: Effectiveness of intervention and perception of situation (seriousness, fight, or strangers).
  • Personal Responsibility vs. General Responsibility: How much responsibility a person feels in a helping situation.
  • Costs & Benefits: Weighing the costs and benefits involved with helping.
  • How to Help: Choosing the best course of action (first aid, ambulance, or direct).

Theoretical Perspectives on Helping: Attribution Perspective

  • Need Legitimacy: If the need is seen as uncontrollable, sympathy and pity may spur help.

Negative-State Relief Model

  • Help Giver Motivation (Schaller & Cialdini, 1988): Helping others might be driven by egoistic desire to relieve personal stress from encountering a problematic situation rather than empathy.

Empathy-Altruism Model (Batson)

  • Empathy & Helping: Helping motivation arises from empathetic concern for the victim, regardless of personal gain or negative feelings.
  • Costs & Benefits: If no empathy, person considers costs and benefits before helping.

Why Do People Help?

  • Personality Characteristics: Factors like sense of competence, personal identity, social norms, and gender can influence helping.
  • Bystander Intervention: The presence of others might decrease likelihood of helping in emergencies.
  • Diffusion of Responsibility: Perceived decreased personal responsibility for helping when others are present.

Aggression (Smith et al.)

  • Aggression defined as behavior aimed at harming another person with intent.
  • Aggression as a Drive: Frustration-aggression hypothesis; biological basis (chimpanzee border wars) and stimulation of hypothalamus.
  • Aggression as Learnt Response (Social Learning Theory): Vicarious learning and observational learning.

Aggression (Franken)

  • Forms of Aggression in Human Behavior: Includes predatory, intermale, fear-induced, territorial, maternal, irritable, sex-related, and instrumental aggression.
  • Possible Motives (for Aggression): Need for control, anger, and affective aggression. Anger often lowers the threshold for aggression but can have different outcomes.

What is Aggression? (Dolf Zillmann 1979)

  • Hostility & Aggression (Inter-Species): Aggression, including attacks against animals, is distinguished from food acquisition.
  • Other Aims (Humans Only): Aggression serving safety (animals threatening), well-being (damaging objects needed for survival), convenience (insects/moles/animals/etc), and pleasure.

What is Aggression? (Dolf Zillmann 1979) (Intra-Species)

  • Aggressive Behavior: Activities aimed at inflicting bodily harm or physical pain.
  • Hostile Behavior: Activities aimed at inflicting harm other than bodily harm.
  • Threat of Aggression or Hostility: Communicative actions indicating intent to behave aggressively.
  • Expressive Behavior: Activities resembling aggression/hostility without intent to harm.
  • Disposition: Readiness, willingness, or tendency to aggress, be hostile, or threaten.

What is Aggression? (Parrott & Giancola 2007)

  • Definition: Aggression as a behavioral process aimed at harming another being who wants to avoid the harm.
  • Direction: Direct vs. indirect aggression (how easily victim can identify the perpetrator).
  • Activity: Active aggression (activities cause harm), vs. passive aggression (lack of activity causes harm).

Types of Aggression (Parrott & Giancola)

  • 12 types of aggressive actions categorized as physical/verbal, direct/indirect, active/passive, including damage to property and theft as well as postural.

News Articles (Examples)

  • Include case studies of incidents involving aggression issues, and spousal conflicts.

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