Psychology: Moral Judgements and Attitudes

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Questions and Answers

What does the 'emotional dog and its rational tail' metaphor represent in human decision-making?

Judgments do not require any explanation.

Emotions drive decisions, and reasoning follows. (correct)

Reasoning leads to emotional decisions.

Rationality is more important than emotions in judgments.

What is meant by 'moral dumbfounding'?

The inability to act morally in certain situations.

Holding strong moral beliefs without being able to justify them. (correct)

The ability to articulate moral reasoning clearly.

Understanding the reasoning behind moral actions.

In the example of whether to slap one's father for $100,000, what drives the majority's decision?

Desire for money overriding emotional responses.

A logical analysis of the consequences of the action.

An instinctive emotional reaction of disgust. (correct)

Fear of judgment from peers.

How does reasoning function in relation to moral judgments according to the model presented?

It serves to justify decisions made primarily through emotion. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios illustrates the principle that reasoning follows emotional decisions?

Rejecting a proposal due to a gut feeling of discomfort. Signup and view all the answers

What role does rationality play in moral decision-making according to the model?

It provides explanations for decisions already made through emotions. Signup and view all the answers

What is suggested about psychopaths in relation to reasoning and morality?

They understand morality but choose to act unethically. Signup and view all the answers

What primarily influences human attitudes according to the model discussed?

Intuitive reactions and emotions. Signup and view all the answers

What are explicit attitudes characterized by?

Attitudes that can be verbally reported Signup and view all the answers

How does the Implicit Association Test (IAT) measure attitudes?

By categorizing concepts into good/bad domains Signup and view all the answers

What does affective value primarily arise from?

Emotional responses to stimuli Signup and view all the answers

Which component of an attitude relates to emotional responses?

Affective component Signup and view all the answers

How can attitudes predict behavior?

Influence feelings and thoughts that guide actions Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the perception of sweet substances when the ventral pallidum is damaged?

Change from liking response to a disliking response Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes an implicit attitude?

Unconscious and hard to articulate Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the cognitive component of an attitude?

Providing reasons or facts supporting evaluations Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about attitudes is true?

Attitudes can be both explicit and implicit. Signup and view all the answers

What best characterizes the affective component of an attitude?

It involves feelings of good or bad. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements illustrates a common misconception about attitudes?

All individuals have only explicit attitudes. Signup and view all the answers

How is value derived according to the discussion on affective value?

It is constructed by the mind and brain. Signup and view all the answers

Which example best reflects an emotional response leading to a cognitive assessment?

Feeling sad about a lost opportunity and reflecting on reasons for it. Signup and view all the answers

What role does the ventral pallidum play in the brain?

It is part of the brain’s reward circuitry. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT one of the core motives for evaluation mentioned?

To feel accepted. Signup and view all the answers

How does evolution contribute to affective values in animals?

It enhances psychological tendencies that help survival. Signup and view all the answers

What is described as a common affective response learned through ancestors?

Fear of snakes and spiders Signup and view all the answers

Which personality trait is associated with liberal political orientation?

Openness to experience Signup and view all the answers

How does conscientiousness relate to conservatism?

It involves a preference for predictability and structure. Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of the population's political orientation differences is influenced by genetic factors?

40% Signup and view all the answers

What is the 'better than average effect'?

An inflated self-assessment compared to others. Signup and view all the answers

What does a classic study comparing monozygotic and dizygotic twins estimate?

The heritability of specific attitudes in society. Signup and view all the answers

How does culture influence moral values over time?

It significantly evolves and alters. Signup and view all the answers

Why would a mutation preventing fear of spiders not thrive in the population?

It would lead to decreased survival rates. Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of personality is generally linked to differences in attitudes among individuals?

Genetic and experiential factors. Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of the optimistic bias?

Overestimating the chances of favorable outcomes. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main implication of the shared feelings of disgust towards certain behaviors?

They have evolved for survival and reproduction. Signup and view all the answers

What does Schadenfreude refer to?

Experiencing joy at someone else's misfortune Signup and view all the answers

How does activity in the nucleus accumbens relate to purchasing decisions?

High activity indicates a strong likelihood of buying Signup and view all the answers

How does dopamine function in relation to rewards?

It predicts the anticipation of future rewards Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter is primarily responsible for the desire or wanting of a reward?

Dopamine Signup and view all the answers

What are the two separate experiences related to rewards identified in the content?

Wanting and liking Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitters are involved in the experience of 'liking'?

Endogenous opioids and anandamide Signup and view all the answers

What was a key finding from the monkey reward experiment?

Dopamine spikes when rewards are predicted by cues Signup and view all the answers

In the context of the content, the term 'wanting' is best defined as:

Anticipatory pleasure for an expected reward Signup and view all the answers

What happens to dopamine release when the predictive power of a cue increases?

It increases proportionately with cue strength Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about wanting and liking is true?

They can be felt separately from each other Signup and view all the answers

What was a conclusion drawn from Takahashi et al.'s study?

There's a positive correlation between envy and activation of the nucleus accumbens Signup and view all the answers

What can increase the liking of sugar in rats based on neurotransmitter manipulation?

Increasing anandamide expression Signup and view all the answers

Which term best describes the desire for a reward influenced by environmental cues?

Anticipation Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is most likely to influence changes in social norms regarding sexual morality?

Social conforming behaviors Signup and view all the answers

How do monozygotic twins differ from dizygotic twins in terms of heritability value for attitudes?

They show greater genetic correlation. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of the mere exposure effect?

Increased liking for a novel juice after repeated tastings. Signup and view all the answers

What role does the ventral tegmental area (VTA) play in the brain?

It generates dopamine for pleasure. Signup and view all the answers

How does damage to the amygdala affect fear learning?

It impairs the ability to learn what to fear. Signup and view all the answers

What factor contributes to the way we assign value to experiences?

A combination of evolution, experiences, and social norms Signup and view all the answers

Which outcome is likely when individuals are repeatedly exposed to pleasurable music?

Increase in the activation of the nucleus accumbens. Signup and view all the answers

What is one consequence of increased acceptance of pre-marital sex in society?

Continued judgment about sexual practices Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the nucleus accumbens in relation to reward?

To experience and recognize pleasure. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of attachment theory, how does a parent-child relationship affect future romantic relationships?

It shapes attachment styles in romantic relationships. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about social standards and moral judgment is correct?

They can heavily influence moral understanding. Signup and view all the answers

How can previous experiences shape future attitudes?

They can create ingrained preferences or aversions. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a key characteristic of the mere exposure effect?

Increased exposure leads to increased preference. Signup and view all the answers

What is the potential impact of societal changes on personal beliefs regarding drug use?

They can create shifts in acceptance and tolerance. Signup and view all the answers

What occurs when dopamine activity is enhanced?

Increased wanting without change in liking Signup and view all the answers

What is a common effect observed in drug addicts over time regarding their feelings toward the drug?

Wanting increases while liking may remain the same or decrease Signup and view all the answers

When participants are blocked from obtaining a desired prize, how do their attitudes typically change?

Liking decreases but wanting for the prize increases Signup and view all the answers

What role do neurotransmitters play in the relationship between wanting and liking?

Dopamine enhances wanting without affecting liking Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes cognitive dissonance?

Experiencing discomfort due to conflicting beliefs or actions Signup and view all the answers

What is NOT a suggested method to reduce cognitive dissonance?

Ignore the conflicting thoughts altogether Signup and view all the answers

What consequence can arise from the justification of effort?

Decreased perceived value of the effort made Signup and view all the answers

Which factor can contribute to the emotional value of a midterm exam?

The anticipated relief or disappointment associated with it Signup and view all the answers

What does the hard problem of consciousness address?

The relationship between physical processes and feelings Signup and view all the answers

What can result from the experience of dissonance when one's thoughts and behaviors are inconsistent?

Heightened motivation to change behavior or beliefs Signup and view all the answers

What influences emotional responses to events like a midterm exam?

Previous experiences of success or failure Signup and view all the answers

What is a consequence of increasing desire for something that cannot be obtained?

Complicated emotional responses and conflicting attitudes Signup and view all the answers

How can social norms influence individual reactions to midterms?

They dictate the emotional responses based on peer expectations Signup and view all the answers

Which approach does NOT contribute to reducing cognitive dissonance?

Continuing the conflicting behavior without change Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason people value their own creations more than those made by experts?

They experience cognitive dissonance. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of post-decision dissonance, what emotional response might a person feel after making a choice they are indifferent about?

A 'what if' feeling about the rejected option. Signup and view all the answers

How does the paradox of choice relate to satisfaction with purchasing decisions?

Limitations on choices can enhance happiness. Signup and view all the answers

In experiments regarding decision-making, what effect was observed when participants had the option to reverse their choices?

They experienced greater liking for their chosen item in a changeable condition. Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario would likely produce stronger post-decision dissonance?

Choosing between two laptops with a final sale. Signup and view all the answers

What is a common misconception regarding social influence?

Social influence does not occur when individuals are alone. Signup and view all the answers

What effect does the presence of choice have on individuals' evaluations of their decisions?

Increased preference for the chosen option. Signup and view all the answers

What is an effect of investing time and energy into a product?

People exhibit greater satisfaction and value for the product. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately reflects the findings on freedom and happiness?

Limited choices can sometimes lead to greater satisfaction. Signup and view all the answers

How do people evaluate their chosen options after making a decision?

They often increase the liking of the chosen option. Signup and view all the answers

What psychological phenomenon explains why people might overvalue their own creations?

The IKEA effect. Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred about people’s preferences when given the chance to change their choice?

Their satisfaction is likely to decrease over time. Signup and view all the answers

What kind of social influence can occur even in the absence of others?

Imagined influence can dictate personal choices. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of decision typically leads to stronger feelings of regret or dissonance?

Final decisions without alternatives. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Moral Judgements

Moral Dumbfounding - People have a difficult time explaining their moral judgments, even if they feel strongly about them. They often hold strong beliefs without being able to articulate their reasoning clearly.
Psychopathy - Psychopaths demonstrate perfectly functional reasoning capabilities, they can logically grasp the concepts of right and wrong. However, they act immorally due to a lack of emotional empathy rather than a deficiency in reasoning skills.

Attitudes and their Components

Explicit Attitudes - Consciously held beliefs and opinions that can be easily verbalized.
Implicit Attitudes - Subconscious beliefs and opinions that are harder to articulate. They can be conflicting with explicit attitudes.
Implicit Association Test (IAT) - A method to measure implicit attitudes by analyzing reaction times to associate concepts, like "good/bad" with specific targets, like "self/other".
Attitude Components -
- Affective: The emotional value attached to an object, including feelings of liking or disliking.
- Cognitive: The thoughts, beliefs, and knowledge about an object that contribute to the overall evaluation.
- Behavioral: The actions or behaviors that result from the attitude.

Affective Value

The Brain Constructs Value: The brain does not merely reflect existing value; it actively creates value based on perception and interpretation. This means that the "goodness" or "badness" of something is not inherent to the object itself, but a product of our brains.
The Ventral Pallidum: A crucial brain region involved in assigning affective value. Damage to this area can lead to a reversal of liking or disliking responses, particularly towards sweet substances. This demonstrates that liking is not inherent to the sweet taste but is a brain construct that can be altered.
Two Core Motivations for Evaluation:
- To be right: Driven by a need to accurately perceive the world and make accurate predictions to achieve goals.
- To feel good: Driven by a desire for hedonic pleasure and a positive emotional experience. These two motives can sometimes conflict.

Sources of Affective Value

Evolutionary Roots: Psychological tendencies that enhance survival and reproduction, like:
- Preferences for certain mates.
- Disgust towards behaviors harmful to social contract.
- Innate fear towards certain stimuli, such as snakes or spiders.
Personality Traits: Individual differences in personality traits influence attitudes, with some traits linked to political orientations:
- Openness to Experience: More associated with liberal political views.
- Conscientiousness: More associated with conservative political views.
Culture and Social Norms: Social standards heavily influence individual moral judgements, and these standards can change over time.
Early Experiences: Early childhood experiences, especially the relationship with parents, can profoundly influence future relationships and attitudes.
- Attachment Theory: The quality of parent-child relationships can affect the development of attachment styles and influence romantic relationships later in life.
Recent Experiences: Recent exposure to objects or situations can influence attitudes.
Mere Exposure Effect: Repeated exposure to a previously neutral stimulus can increase liking for that stimulus, impacting preferences even in areas like food preferences. This effect is accompanied by changes in brain activity within the reward circuitry.

Brain Regions and Affective Value

Amygdala: This region of the brain is responsible for rapidly assigning significance to events and objects in the environment. Damage to the amygdala leads to impaired fear learning, making it difficult for individuals to associate fear with specific objects or situations.
Nucleus Accumbens: Part of the brain's reward circuitry, responsible for experiencing pleasure, is activated in response to:
- Strong emotions like sexual attraction.
- Attractive faces.
- The anticipation of earning money.
- Enjoyable music.
- The receipt of drugs (in addicts).
- Social rewards (e.g., learning about misfortune of an envied person).
Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA): The source of dopamine neurons, which play a significant role in reward processing. The VTA projects to the nucleus accumbens, contributing to the positive affective values assigned to things.

Predicting Choices with Brain Activity

Brain Activity and Choice Prediction: Brain activity can predict choices and behaviors, including purchasing decisions.
Nucleus Accumbens Activity: The activity in this region can predict whether an individual will choose to buy a product.

Nucleus Accumbens Activity & Purchase Decisions

The nucleus accumbens plays a crucial role in predicting purchase decisions.
High activity in this brain region is associated with buying, while low activity suggests no purchase.
Nucleus accumbens activity assigns subjective value to products.

Wanting vs. Liking

Wanting: The desire to experience a rewarding stimulus, driven by dopamine, represents anticipatory pleasure.
Liking: The enjoyment experienced from a reward, driven by endogenous opioids and cannabinoids, represents consummatory pleasure.
Wanting and liking can be felt separately, leading to interesting consequences.

Dopamine and Reward Anticipation

Monkey experiment: Dopamine levels spiked when a reward (juice) was unexpectedly presented, indicating a response to the reward’s anticipation.
When reward cues were presented, dopamine increased in response to the cues, reflecting learned association between cues and the reward, rather than the reward itself.
Dopamine release scales with the predictive power of the cue and the magnitude of the reward.

Liking Neurotransmitters

Endogenous opioids (enkephalin) and endogenous cannabinoids (anandamide) contribute to liking.
These neurotransmitters are mimicked by addictive drugs like heroin and marijuana, activating the systems designed for natural rewards.
Manipulating these neurotransmitters in animals can affect liking.

Wanting and Liking: Separate Systems

Wanting and liking are independent systems, even though we often like what we want.
Enhanced dopamine activity increases wanting without affecting liking.
Depleted dopamine activity reduces wanting but doesn't change liking responses.

Addiction and Wanting/Liking Dissociation

In addiction, wanting for the drug increases over time, while liking may remain the same or even decrease.
Drug addicts crave their drug even though they may not enjoy it as much as they used to.

Lusting While Loathing: Conflicting Attitudes

Study: Blocking participants from a prize increased their wanting but decreased their liking for it.
People can desire something they don't genuinely like.
Participants were more willing to pay for the reward but more likely to trade it away after receiving it.

Midterms and Emotional Value

Midterms, though lacking intrinsic value, hold intense emotional value due to various factors.

Core Motives/Evolution & Midterm Emotions

Fear: Fear of failure or disappointing parents.
Curiosity: Desire to understand new ideas.
Belongingness: Desire to fit in.

Personality & Midterm Emotions

Neuroticism: Prone to disappointment.
Openness to Experience: Curious about new ideas.
Extraversion: May value belongingness differently than introverts.

Life Experiences & Midterm Emotions

Early and recent experiences, especially attachment theory, can influence how a student perceives a midterm.

Social Conformity: Midterm attitudes are influenced by societal norms and values.
Emotional Contagion: Feelings about the midterm can be influenced by how others feel.

The Hard Problem of Consciousness

Consciousness arises from physical processes, which themselves are devoid of meaning.
How meaning and feeling emerge from meaningless physical processes is a fundamental question.

Cognitive Dissonance

People dislike inconsistency between their thoughts and behaviors, experiencing dissonance when confronted with conflict.
Motivated to reduce dissonance, people use different strategies:

Reducing Cognitive Dissonance: Strategies

Change a dissonant cognition: Revise an attitude.
Add a new cognition: Justify the inconsistent behavior.
Change the behavior: Stop the inconsistent behavior.

Justification of Effort: The Ikea Effect

People tend to value something they put effort into creating more.
Study: Participants were willing to pay more for an origami they made themselves, even when experts created a better version.

Post-Decision Dissonance

After making a decision, people reduce dissonance by evaluating their choice more favorably and devaluing the rejected options.
This "what if" feeling is stronger when the decision is unchangeable.

The Paradox of Choice

Having more choices can lead to less satisfaction due to the burden of "what if" feelings.
Study on photography students: Those with the option to change their choice later were less satisfied with their choice than those with a final decision.

Lecture 6: Conformity

** Social influence**: The power of others to alter our behavior, thoughts, and emotions.
Social Influence: Can occur in the presence or absence of others, as long as you're imagining their presence.

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Description

Explore the complexities of moral judgments and the dual nature of attitudes through this insightful quiz. Delve into concepts such as moral dumbfounding, psychopathy, explicit and implicit attitudes, and the Implicit Association Test (IAT) to enhance your understanding of psychology. Test your knowledge and refine your comprehension of these critical psychological concepts.