Psychology Midterm: Research Methods and Stats

• These notes cover key terms and concepts for a psychology midterm exam.

Research Methods & Statistics

• Generalizability: Refers to the extent to which research findings can be applied to a broader population beyond the study sample.
• Standard Deviation: This measures the dispersion or spread of data points from the mean or average value in a dataset.
• Statistical Significance: Indicates the probability that research results are not due to random chance, suggesting a real effect or relationship.
• Normal Distribution: A symmetrical bell-shaped curve visually representing the distribution of data, where most values cluster around the mean.
• Regression Towards the Mean: The tendency for extreme values or scores to move closer to the average upon repeated measurement.
• Independent Variables: Factors directly manipulated or controlled by the researcher in an experiment to observe their effect.
• Dependent Variables: The outcomes or responses measured in an experiment that are expected to change in response to the manipulation of independent variables.
• Correlation: A statistical relationship between two variables, indicating how they tend to change together, but not necessarily implying causation.
• Scatterplot Interpretation: A visual representation of the relationship between two variables, where the pattern of plotted points indicates the strength and direction of the correlation.
• Research Method: A systematic approach used to investigate phenomena, involving structured steps for data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
• Operational Definition: Provides a specific and measurable explanation of how a variable will be measured or quantified in a study.
• Reliability: Refers to the consistency of a measure or test over time or across different administrations.
• Predictive Validity: The degree to which a test or measure accurately predicts future performance or behavior.

Psychological Perspectives

• Evolutionary Psychology: This examines behavior and mental processes through the lens of evolutionary principles, such as natural selection.
• Biological Perspective: This emphasizes the biological bases of behavior, including genetics, brain structure, and neurochemistry.
• Nature vs. Nurture: A fundamental debate about the relative contributions of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) to behavior and development.
• Twin Studies: A research method that compares similarities between identical and fraternal twins to assess the relative influence of genetics and environment on specific traits or behaviors.

The Nervous System

• Parasympathetic Nervous System: Calms the body after a stress response, promoting relaxation and conserving energy.
• Sympathetic Nervous System: Prepares the body for a "fight-or-flight" response to perceived threats, increasing heart rate and alertness.
• Spinal Reflex Arc: An automatic and rapid response pathway involving sensory and motor neurons in the spinal cord, bypassing the brain.
• Dopamine: A neurotransmitter in the brain associated with pleasure, reward, motivation, and motor control.
• Serotonin: A neurotransmitter that plays a key role in regulating mood, sleep, appetite, and other functions.
• Glial Cells: Support cells in the nervous system that provide structure, insulation, and nourishment to neurons.
• Neuron Firing Process: The transmission of electrical impulses (action potentials) along the axon of a neuron to communicate with other cells.
• Refractory Period: A recovery phase after a neuron fires, during which it is temporarily unable to fire another action potential.

Brain Structures & Functions

• Amygdala: A brain region critically involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression.
• Medulla: Located in the brainstem, it controls essential autonomic functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.
• Corpus Callosum: A large band of neural fibers connecting the left and right hemispheres of the brain, allowing for communication between them.
• Hypothalamus: A brain structure that regulates homeostasis, including body temperature, hunger, thirst, and hormone release.
• Hippocampus: Essential for the formation of new memories and spatial navigation.
• Wernicke's Area: A region in the brain responsible for language comprehension.
• Broca's Area: A region in the brain responsible for language production.
• Wernicke's Aphasia: A language disorder characterized by impaired language comprehension, resulting in fluent but nonsensical speech.
• Broca's Aphasia: A language disorder characterized by difficulty producing speech, resulting in slow and effortful communication.
• Lobes of the Brain: Different regions of the brain (frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital) each responsible for specific functions.

Sleep & Consciousness

• Sleep Disorders: Conditions that disrupt normal sleep patterns, affecting sleep quality, timing, and duration.
• NREM vs. REM: Distinct stages of sleep; NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement) includes stages of increasingly deep sleep, while REM (Rapid Eye Movement) is associated with dreaming and brain activity similar to wakefulness.
• Circadian Rhythm: A biological 24-hour internal clock that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and other physiological processes.
• Theories of Dreaming: Various explanations for the purpose and meaning of dreams, including activation-synthesis theory and information-processing theory.

Perception & Cognition

• Top-Down Processing: Interpretation of sensory information based on prior knowledge, expectations, and experiences.
• Bottom-Up Processing: Building perception from basic sensory input and assembling it into a complete representation.
• Gestalt Principles: Rules that describe how the human brain organizes visual information into meaningful patterns and wholes.
• Closure: The tendency to perceive incomplete shapes or figures as complete by filling in the missing gaps.
• Figure Ground: The perceptual organization of distinguishing objects (the figure) from their background (the ground).
• Framing: The way information is presented can influence decision-making and judgments.
• Heuristics: Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb used to simplify problem-solving and decision-making.
• Representative Heuristic: Judging the likelihood of an event based on how well it matches a stereotype or prototype.
• Availability Heuristic: Estimating the likelihood of an event based on how readily examples come to mind.

Memory

• Prospective Memory: Remembering to perform actions planned for the future.
• Long Term Potentiation: A strengthening of synapses between neurons, believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
• Serial Position Effect: The tendency to better recall items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list compared to those in the middle.
• Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating information to keep it active in short-term memory, but not necessarily transferring it to long-term memory.
• Semantic Memory: Memory for general knowledge, facts, and concepts.
• Episodic Memory: Memory for specific personal experiences and events.
• Procedural Memory: Memory for skills and habits, such as riding a bike or typing.
• Metacognition: Awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes and cognitive abilities.
• Testing Effect: Improved long-term retention of information through repeated retrieval practice, such as taking quizzes or tests.
• Encoding Failure: The inability to form a memory trace, preventing information from being stored in long-term memory.
• Retroactive Interference: New information disrupts the recall of previously learned information.
• Proactive Interference: Old information disrupts the recall of newly learned information.

Intelligence

• G: General intelligence factor represents a broad mental capacity that influences performance on cognitive tasks.

Research Ethics

• Ethical Considerations: Guidelines that ensure the welfare, rights, and safety of participants in research studies.
• Consent: Voluntary agreement to participate in research after being fully informed about the study's purpose, procedures, and potential risks.
• Do No Harm: An ethical principle that prioritizes the safety and well-being of research participants, minimizing potential harm.
• Debriefing: Informing participants about the true nature, goals, and any deception used in a study after their participation.
• IRB: An Institutional Review Board is a committee that reviews and approves research proposals involving human participants to ensure ethical standards are met.
• AAQ Elements: Key components related to Approaches in Psychology.