Psychology Memory Concepts

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary purpose of retrieval in the memory process?

Bringing previously encoded and stored information to mind (correct)

Maintaining information in memory over time

Transforming perceptions into lasting memories

Creating new information from existing knowledge

Which type of encoding involves relating new information to existing knowledge in a meaningful way?

Semantic encoding (correct)

Organizational encoding

Contextual encoding

Visual imagery encoding

According to evolutionary theories, why should memory mechanisms that assist survival be passed down?

They are less effective than other mechanisms.

They help to create visual imagery.

They provide advantages in planning for the future. (correct)

They have limited applications in everyday life.

Which encoding method includes the process of storing new information as mental pictures?

Visual imagery encoding Signup and view all the answers

What effect does survival encoding have on memory recall compared to other encoding conditions?

It leads to superior memory recall. Signup and view all the answers

What type of storage holds sensory information for a few seconds or less?

Sensory storage Signup and view all the answers

Which process allows information to be kept in short-term memory by mentally repeating it?

Rehearsal Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of working memory?

To actively maintain and manipulate information Signup and view all the answers

Which type of amnesia refers to the inability to transfer new information to long-term memory?

Anterograde amnesia Signup and view all the answers

What is the process known as when memories become stable in the brain?

Consolidation Signup and view all the answers

Which memory component has a limited capacity and actively manages information?

Working memory Signup and view all the answers

What occurs when memories, upon recall, become vulnerable and require re-consolidation?

Reconsolidation Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the brain is crucial for the formation of long-term memories?

Hippocampus Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of long-term potentiation (LTP)?

To strengthen communication across synapses Signup and view all the answers

Which receptor is specifically associated with the initiation of long-term potentiation?

NMDA receptor Signup and view all the answers

What is the encoding specificity principle?

A retrieval cue is more effective if it matches the way the information was encoded. Signup and view all the answers

State-dependent retrieval suggests that:

Information is recalled better when in the same mental state as during encoding. Signup and view all the answers

Which defines procedural memory?

Automatic skills acquired through practice Signup and view all the answers

Priming enhances memory accessibility by:

Improving the ability to think of a stimulus after recent exposure. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of memory does NOT rely on the hippocampus?

Implicit memory Signup and view all the answers

What consequence can result from retrieval of memories?

It can impair the ability to recall that memory later. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of memory primarily involves a network of associated facts and concepts?

Semantic Memory Signup and view all the answers

What is the impact of proactive interference on memory?

It occurs when new information affects the recall of old information. Signup and view all the answers

Which brain regions are predominantly activated during perceptual priming?

Visual cortex Signup and view all the answers

What does decay theory suggest about memory?

Memories naturally degrade over time when not used. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of memory failure is associated with forgetting due to the passage of time?

Transience Signup and view all the answers

Which memory type allows for the combination of past experiences to envision future scenarios?

Episodic Memory Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the forgetting curve in memory retention?

Rapid memory loss followed by stable retention. Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes new information disrupting previously learned material?

Interference Signup and view all the answers

Which type of interference occurs when new information disrupts the retrieval of older memories?

Retroactive interference Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe the inability to retrieve information despite having it in memory?

Blocking Signup and view all the answers

Which memory phenomenon involves assigning recollections to incorrect sources?

Memory misattribution Signup and view all the answers

Infantile amnesia primarily affects memories from which period of life?

Childhood Signup and view all the answers

Which brain area is primarily involved in the phenomenon of memory misattribution?

Frontal lobe Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the tendency to recall information inaccurately after being exposed to misleading details?

Suggestibility Signup and view all the answers

Which type of memory refers to the ability to remember to perform tasks in the future?

Prospective memory Signup and view all the answers

Which phenomenon is characterized by a sense of familiarity with something that has not been previously encountered?

False recognition Signup and view all the answers

What is consistency bias characterized by?

Exaggerating past beliefs to match present views Signup and view all the answers

Which bias is described as the tendency to exaggerate past feelings to enhance one's self-image?

Egocentric bias Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during persistence in memory?

Recollections of unwanted events recur intrusively Signup and view all the answers

What are flashbulb memories associated with?

Memory of emotional or shocking events Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about the amygdala's role in memory is true?

It is associated with enhanced emotional memory processing Signup and view all the answers

What does Jamais Vu refer to in memory experiences?

Feeling unfamiliarity with a known experience Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon is described by cryptomnesia?

Believing an idea is original when it's not Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'persistence' in memory refer to?

Often remembering emotional experiences vividly Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Memory

Memory is the ability to store and retrieve information over time.
Three key functions of memory include encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Encoding is the process of transforming perceptions, thoughts, and feelings into enduring memories.
Storage is the process of maintaining information in memory over time.
Retrieval is the process of bringing previously encoded and stored information to mind.

Encoding: Transforming Perceptions into Memories

Memories are created by combining existing information with new information.
Memories are constructed.
Three major ways to encode information include semantic encoding, visual imagery encoding, and organizational encoding.
Semantic encoding is the process of actively relating new information to existing knowledge.
Visual imagery encoding involves converting new information into mental pictures.
Organizational encoding is the process of categorizing information based on relationships between items.

Memory mechanisms that aid survival are often passed down through evolution.
An experiment showed that encoding survival-related information, in opposition to other conditions, resulted in better recollection, possibly due to elaborate, visual imagery-based encoding, and organization.
Superior recall is demonstrated with scenarios involving planning but not survival.

Storage

Sensory storage holds sensory information for a few seconds or less.
Iconic memory is a fast-decaying store of visual information.
Echoic memory is a fast-decaying store of auditory information.

Short-Term Memory

Short-term storage and working memory hold non-sensory information for a few seconds to a minute; typically can hold about seven items.
Rehearsal is the process of keeping information in STM by repeating it mentally.
Chunking involves combining small pieces of information into larger clusters which are easier to hold in STM.
Working memory is an active STM storage that maintains and manipulates information.

Working Memory

Working memory stores and manipulates information.
The working memory model includes a limited-capacity memory system.
Two subsystems—visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop—use episodic buffers to encode information.

Long-Term Storage

Long-term memory (LTM) stores information for hours, days, weeks, or years.
LTM has no known capacity limits.
People can frequently recall items from LTM even after several years.

The Hippocampus

In the case of H.M., the hippocampus was removed, preventing the transfer of information from short-term to long-term storage.
Retrograde amnesia is the inability to retrieve information before a specific date, typically the date of an injury or operation.
Anterograde amnesia is the inability to transfer new information from short-term to long-term storage.
Consolidation is the brain process that stabilizes memories.
During recall, memories can become vulnerable to disruption, requiring reconsolidation.

Memories, Neurons, and Synapses

Connections between neurons (synapses) specifically in the hippocampus strengthen memories.
Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a process where communication across synapses between neurons strengthens connections, facilitating easier communication.
The NMDA receptor in the hippocampus influences information flow by controlling the initiation of LTP.

Retrieving Memories

Retrieval cues are external events that help retrieve information from LTM.
Retrieval cues refer to external information linked with stored information facilitating recollection.

Retrieval Cues: Internal and External Cues

The encoding specificity principle suggests that retrieval cues are effective when they recreate the initial encoding of information.
State-dependent retrieval occurs when the recall environment matches the encoding environment.
Increased recall likely happens when encoding and retrieval situations align.

Consequences of Retrieval

Retrieval can strengthen memories (especially long-term).
Retrieval can lead to forgetting.
In some cases, retrieval can improve subsequent memory.
In other cases, retrieval can impair subsequent memory.
In some cases, retrieval changes subsequent memory.

Types of Long-Term Memory

Explicit memory is consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences.
Implicit memory is the influence of past experiences on later behavior without consciously retrieving that experience.

Implicit Memory

Procedural memory involves gradually acquiring skills through practice, representing "knowing how" to do things.
Priming refers to the ability to process a stimulus more easily due to recent exposure.
Perceptual priming and conceptual priming are two types of priming.
Priming is not reliant on the hippocampus, but rather utilizes reduced cortical activity in different parts of the brain.

Explicit Memory: Semantic and Episodic

Semantic memory is a network of associated facts and concepts forming general knowledge.
Episodic memory is a collection of personal experiences from specific time periods.

Episodic Memory

Episodic memory allows imagining personal futures through divergent creative thinking.
Episodic memory enables combining elements of past experiences into new scenarios.

Why do we Forget?

Decay theory proposes that memories fade gradually due to disuse.
Forgetting sometimes follows a specific pattern, called the forgetting curve.
Interference: Forgetting is affected by what happens before and after learning.
- Proactive interference: competing previously learned information hinders new learning.
- Retroactive interference: newly acquired information disrupts recollection of previously learned information.

Memory Failures

Transience
Absentmindedness
Blocking
Misattribution
Suggestibility
Bias
Persistence

Transience

Transience refers to forgetting over time.
Memory fades quickly initially, then more slowly.
There's a shift from recalling specific memories to recalling more general memories.

Absentmindedness

Absentmindedness refers to lapses in attention, leading to memory failures.
Mental activity reduces in the frontal lobe when attention is divided.
Prospective memory involves remembering to do something in the future.
External reminders and intention offloading assist with prospective memory.

Blocking

Blocking describes failing to retrieve readily available information despite trying.
Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon illustrates this difficulty, especially in relation to age and injury.

Misattribution

Misattribution is mistakenly assigning a recollection to the wrong source.
Correct memories can be linked to wrong sources.
Source memory involves remembering the origin of the information.
Misattribution can include false recognition (believing something familiar is previously encountered).

Suggestibility

Suggestibility is easily influenced by external information, potentially creating inaccurate memories.
People potentially develop false memories in response to suggestions.
Visual imagery and social pressures contribute to suggestibility.

Bias

Bias refers to present knowledge, beliefs, or feelings potentially distorting previous recollections.
Consistency bias suggests reconstructing the past to align with the present.
Change bias exaggerates differences between past and present feelings or beliefs.
Egocentric bias is the tendency to exaggerate personal changes (positively) during recollection.

Persistence

Persistence involves intrusive recollection of unwanted events.
These events often follow disturbing or traumatic experiences.
Emotional experiences are often better recalled than unemotional ones.
Flashbulb memories are detailed memories of significant events.
The amygdala plays a role in emotional memory.

The Amygdala's Influence on Memory

The amygdala plays an important role in encoding and retrieving memories, particularly emotional ones.
Individuals with amygdala damage often have difficulty distinguishing between emotional events and non-emotional events, particularly in comparison.

Additional Concepts

Seven "sins" of memory (transience, absentmindedness, blocking, misattribution, suggestibility, bias, and persistence) and their potential adaptive advantages.
Other memory mishaps (Jamais Vu, Time-Gap Experience, and Cryptomnesia) are noted.

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Description

Explore the fascinating aspects of memory, including its key functions like encoding, storage, and retrieval. Understand how semantic, visual imagery, and organizational encoding work to shape our memories. Test your knowledge and learn how we construct and recall information over time.