Psychology: Long-Term Memory Concepts

Long-Term Memory: Encoding, Retrieval, and Consolidation

• Long-term memory (LTM) stores information for long periods, potentially a lifetime. It's different from short-term memory, which holds less information briefly.
• LTM is categorized into explicit (conscious) and implicit (unconscious) memory systems.

Encoding: Entering Information into LTM

• Encoding is converting information into a memory representation.

• Strategies include rehearsal (repeating), elaborative rehearsal (linking to existing knowledge), and levels of processing.

• Shallow processing focuses on surface features, while deep processing uses meaning, leading to stronger memory.

• Elaboration connects new information to existing knowledge for better retention.

• Visual imagery (mental images) enhances memory.

• Paivio's dual-code hypothesis suggests combining verbal and visual codes improves memory.

• The self-reference effect involves relating information to oneself for better encoding.

• The generation effect shows that producing information improves learning. (e.g. creating quizzes)

• Organizing information (chunking, categories) simplifies encoding.

Factors that Aid Encoding

• Visual imagery aids memory.
• Linking new information to prior knowledge, personal experiences, or emotions.
• Self-reference effect: Connecting information to oneself enhances memory.

Retrieval: Accessing Information from LTM

• Retrieval is the process of accessing stored information.
• Cues trigger memories.
• Encoding specificity principle: Retrieval is better if encoding and retrieval contexts are similar. (e.g. studying in the same environment as testing).
• State-dependent learning indicates that retrieval is better if the internal state matches the encoding state. (e.g being happy when you learn will increase the chances of recalling it when happy)
• Transfer-appropriate processing shows that retrieval is better if the task at encoding matches the task at retrieval.

Retrieval Practice

• The testing effect shows that retrieving information strengthens memory more than passive studying.

Consolidation: Stabilizing Memories

• Consolidation stabilizes newly formed memories—making them permanent.
• Synaptic consolidation happens rapidly at the synapse level.
• Systems consolidation is a slower process, reorganizing neural circuits, especially in the hippocampus and cortex.
• Reconsolidation: Recalling memories makes them vulnerable to change. Updating but potentially distorting initial memories.

Improving Learning and Memory

• Spacing information out over time ("distributed practice") enhances memory.
• Actively engaging with material (summarizing, questioning) improves retention.
• Retrieval practice (testing yourself) strengthens memory.

Research on Encoding, Retrieval, and Consolidation

• Neuroscience research investigates encoding, storage, and retrieval in the brain.
• Brain imaging studies reveal different brain areas are involved.
• Lesions in the hippocampus can cause anterograde amnesia, supporting its role in consolidation.

Key Encoding, Retrieval, and Consolidation Points

• Effective memory strategies consider encoding and retrieval processes.
• Encoding strategies (elaboration, visualization, self-reference) are important for successful memory encoding.
• Retrieval is influenced by encoding context, internal states, and the retrieval task.
• Consolidation processes solidify memories. Reconsolidation shows that memories are dynamic and susceptible to change.