Psychology Key Concepts

Psychology: The scientific study of the mind and behavior.
Behavior: Observable actions and reactions.
Cognitive Activities: Mental processes like thinking, remembering, and problem-solving.
Psychological Constructs: Theoretical ideas, not directly observable, used to explain behavior.
Theory: Explanation of a phenomenon, based on observations and supported by evidence.
Principle: Fundamental truth or proposition that serves as the foundation for a system of belief or behavior or for a chain of reasoning.
Psychiatrist: Physician specializing in the diagnosis and treatment of mental illnesses
Basic Research: Study of fundamental principles and theories.
Ancient Greek Philosophers (e.g., Socrates, Plato, Aristotle): Early thinkers in Greece who explored concepts of human nature.
Introspection: A method of self-observation.
Associationism: Focuses on how experiences are connected and influence behavior.
Wilhem Wundt: Founder of the first experimental psychology lab.
William James: Key figure in functionalism
Sigmund Freud: Known for psychoanalysis.
John B. Watson: Key figure in behaviorism.
B.F. Skinner: Also contributed to behaviorism.
Structuralism: Focused on the basic elements of consciousness.
Functionalism: Emphasized the adaptive purpose of mental processes.
Psychoanalysis: Focuses on unconscious mental processes in influencing behavior..
Behaviorism: Focuses on observable behaviors, not internal thoughts.
Biological Perspective: Examines biological factors influencing behavior.
Evolutionary Perspective: How evolution has influenced behavior.
Cognitive Perspective: Focuses on mental processes in influencing behavior.
Humanistic Perspective: Emphasizes personal growth and potential.
Psychoanalytic Perspective: Explores unconscious motives and conflicts influencing behavior.
Learning Perspective: Explains how experience shapes behavior.
Social-Learning Theory: Focus on how social factors affect learning.

Research Methods and Ethics

Steps of Scientific Research: Research Question, Hypothesis, Test Hypothesis, Analyze the Results, Draw Conclusions, Replicate the research
Survey: Gathering data through questionnaires.
Target Population: The overall group of people you want to study
Sample: Individuals you select to represent the group.
Random Sample: Everyone has an equal chance of being selected.
Stratified Sample: Ensure representation of specific subgroups.
Bias: Errors that systematically skew results.
Volunteer Bias: Characteristics of volunteers that might influence findings
Case Study: Detailed study of a single individual.
Longitudinal Method: Observe individuals over an extended period.
Cross-Sectional Method: Investigate multiple groups at a single time.
Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in natural setting.
Laboratory Observation: Observing behavior in controlled environment.
Independent Variable: Condition being manipulated.
Dependent Variable: Measured outcome, affected by the independent variable.
Experimental Group: Groups that have the independent variable applied.
Control Group: Group that does not receive the independent variable.
Placebo: Inert substance given to a control group to minimize bias.
Single-Blind Study: Participants don't know which group they are in.
Double-Blind Study: Both the researchers and the participants don't know which group they are in.
Ethics: Guidelines for responsible conduct in research

Biological and Physiological Processes

Central Nervous System: Brain and spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System: Nerves outside the CNS
Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movements.
Autonomic Nervous System: Controls involuntary functions.
Sympathetic Nervous System: Activates "fight-or-flight" response
Parasympathetic Nervous System: Calming the body
Endocrine System: Glands that secrete hormones.
Hormones: Chemical messengers influencing behavior.
Pituitary Gland: Master gland influencing other glands.
Adrenal Gland: Releases adrenaline and cortisol (stress hormones)
Testes: Male reproductive glands.
Ovaries: Female reproductive glands.
Estrogen: Female sex hormone
Progesterone: Female sex hormone
Testosterone: Male sex hormone
Steroids: Hormones with complex structure
Heredity: Transmission of traits through genes
Sensation: Process of detecting stimuli
Perception: Interpreting and organizing sensation
Absolute Threshold: The weakest stimulus that can be detected
Difference Threshold: Smallest detectable difference between two stimuli
Sensory Adaptation: Diminished sensitivity to constant stimuli
Signal Detection Theory: Predicts how and when we detect a faint stimulus amidst background stimulation.
Sensorineural Deafness: Hearing loss caused by damage to inner ear.
Conductive Deafness: Hearing loss caused by problems conducting sound waves.
Vestibular Sense: Provides information about body position and movement
Kinesthesis: Sense of knowing body position and movement

Learning and Conditioning

Classical Conditioning: Learning through association.
Unconditioned Stimulus: Stimulus that naturally triggers a response.
Conditioned Stimulus: Stimulus that, after repeated association, triggers a response.
Unconditioned Response: Natural response to an unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned Response: Learned response to a conditioned stimulus.
Taste Aversion: Learned dislike for a taste that was associated with illness.
Extinction: Weakening of a learned response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer presented with the unconditioned stimulus.
Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of a learned response after a period of rest following extinction.
Generalization: Responding similarly to a range of similar stimuli.
Discrimination: Responding differently to similar stimuli
Flooding: Exposing a person to a feared stimulus until anxiety diminishes.
Systematic Desensitization: Gradually exposing a person to a feared stimulus, using relaxation techniques.
Counterconditioning: Learning to respond differently towards a stimulus
Operant Conditioning: Learning based on reinforcement and punishment.
Reinforcement: Increasing the likelihood of a behavior happening again.
Primary Reinforcers: Naturally reinforcing (e.g., food, water).
Secondary Reinforcers: Learned reinforcing (e.g., money, praise).
Negative Reinforcers: Removing unpleasant stimuli to increase behavior.
Interval Schedule: Reinforcement after a certain amount of time
Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement after a certain number of responses.
Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcing every desired behavior.
Partial Reinforcement: Reinforcing some behaviors but not all.
Shaping: Gradually guiding behavior towards a desired goal using reinforcement.
Chaining: Combining several behaviors to form a complex response.
Latent Learning: Learning that occurs but is not immediately evident in behavior.
Observational Learning: Learning by observing others
PQ4R: Method for active reading (Preview, Question, Read, Reflect, Recite, Review)
Distributed learning: Spreading out study sessions
Massed learning: Cramming