Psychology: Introduction and Research Methods

Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology

• Focuses on finding information about people and exploring research methods in psychology.

Definition of Psychology:

• Psychology studies human behavior, emotions, and thought processes scientifically to help people and improve their condition.
• It is grounded in evidence and scientific principles, but the validity of information is only impartially valid because the information needs to be given to people.

Application of Psychology:

• In professional settings, registered psychologists work with people with the HPCSA.
• In academic settings, psychology involves conducting research.

HPCSA Role:

• The Health Professions Council of South Africa ensures adequate training standards for psychologists and other health workers.

Psychology as a Belief System:

• Psychology is one of many belief systems about people, alongside religion, societal views, and celebrity influence.
• Psychology differs by focusing not only on what we know about people but also how we come to know it.
• Knowing WHO makes claims about human behavior is crucial, especially in approaches differing from psychology.

Influence of Sigmund Freud:

• Psychologists influenced by Sigmund Freud's work, the founder of psychoanalysis, find it provides useful information on human development based on its methods, which give new knowledge about people.

Counter Arguments to Freud:

• It is important to consider if Freud's work is lacking in logic or incorrect and explain why when disagreeing.
• Science students must learn not just WHAT is true, but WHY it is true.
• Theories develop from different perspectives, using methods to test and further develop them.

Scientific Method:

• The scientific method is practiced in everyday situations.
• It involves developing a hypothesis, gathering consistent evidence from various sources, and interpreting evidence based on existing knowledge.

Steps in the Scientific Method:

• Ask a question.
• Research background to determine what other studies have found.
• Create a hypothesis (STATEMENT).
• Gather information to either accept or reject the hypothesis.
• Examine the data.
• Present results in journal.

Accessing and Evaluating Psychological Information:

• Peer reviewing involves having articles reviewed by experts before publishing in academic journals.
• The Internet offers an abundance of resources along with potential misinformation, making it necessary to critically assess the integrity of information.
• It is important to assess information critically in order to develop skills for critical thinking.

Assessing Psychology:

• Evaluate based on evidence, not personal agreement, as opinions and arguments may vary and still offer important information.
• Debates and new evidence contribute to the advancement of psychology, making way for new insights.
• Check the research methods used.

Psychological Terminology:

• Terms change regularly, so it is imprtant to stay relevant.
• Avoid sexist language, acknowledging the relevance of women and men.

Describing People in Research:

• "Subjects" is not a good representation, as it gives the impression of coercion and use of power by psychologists.
• "Respondents" represents people interested in answering questions.
• "Participants" stresses the active role of people participating in research.
• Some describe people being tested as what they are researching, e.g. cyclists.
• Use ‘client’ instead of ‘patient’, as Psychology provides services, rather than treating illness.

Ethical Practice:

• Focus on how ordinary people perpetrate violence, referencing the Stanley Milgram case study.

Milgram's Experiment:

• Milgram deceived participants into thinking they were administering electric shocks.
• The experiment revealed the potential for extreme harm in obedience to authority and that situational factors, not morality, dictate the difference between torturers and non-torturers.
• Although informative about issues like oppression, violence, and genocide, the study was unethical .

Ethical Code:

• Psychologists must ensure they do not violate people's rights and adhere to ethical aspects.
• These principles apply to psychologists' work, aiming to help people and considering the welfare of students and colleagues.

Ethical Aspects:

• Beneficence: Act in the best interest of client, considering what we will gain in experiments on animals

• Competence: Undertake work that you are qualified and trained to do.

• Non-maleficence: Avoid causing harm, as in the Milgram experiment.

• Fidelity: Act in a trustworthy manner to foster researcher-participant trust.

• Integrity: Commit to the truth.

• Justice: Do not act with discrimination.

• Respect for human rights and dignity - No treating anyone differently based on their ground of age and disability etc.

• Autonomy: Allow participants the right to participate.

History of Psychology:

• In 1520, Marko Marulic used the term "Psychology" to describe a field concerned with the human mind/spirit.
• Wilhelm Wundt formalized the discipline in 1879 by establishing a psychology research lab.
• Wundt aimed to break down sensory experiences, developing Structuralism.
• William James developed functionalism, disagreeing with Wundt and focusing on consciousness and influenced by Darwin's work.

Ancient Philosophers:

• Ancient philosophers’ texts include themes making up modern psychology.
• Plato: Distinguished between rational and irrational psyche.
• Aristotle: Said emotions came from mind not heart.
• Mencius: Contemplated elements of human mind.
• Democritus: Proposed a material basis for mental states.
• Hippocrates: Argued that both mental and physical pathologies are the results of natural causes.

European Influences:

• From the 5th to 16th century, psychological concerns was heavily influenced by religious frameworks.
• In Europe during the 18th century, there was an urge to uncover the laws of the universe and the place of human consciousness.

Psychology in South Africa:

• In 1940, South African psychology remained small and influenced by the psychology of the northern hemisphere until the end of the 20th century, with a focus on intelligence tests.
• The growth of the discipline gained momentum during World War 2 due to demands for aptitude tests and programs for demobilized troops. This increased after wartime realization of its value for the SA Industrial sector.
• Later, psychologists were involved in initiatives focused on transformation of South African society.
• Society's ideas influence psychology.

Fields of Psychology:

• Sub-disciplines are areas of specialisation.
• Developmental: Changes over a persons life span.
• Social: Study of individuals in groups.
• Health: Optimal health and healthcare practices.
• Cognitive: The mental processes.
• Personality: The consistuent parts of the human personality.
• Industrial/Organizational: Effects of organizations on the individual.
• Educational: Learning in institutions.
• Clinical: The study of non-normative behaviour.
• Counselling: The development and implementation of interventions aimed at aiding people with adjustment difficulties.
• Community: Developing and applying large scale interventions.
• Neuropsychology: Interface between mind and brain.

Main Schools of Thought:

• Contemporary perspectives of psychology are diverse and may conflict.
• It is not always clear which view is correct, so assessment must be made based on evidence and argument.
• Psychology may differ based on a several aspects.

Focus of Study:

Differenes may vary; some more interested in behaviour while others focus on unconscious processes.

Dependency on Heredity:

Differences may vary; behaviour depends on inherited characteristics or factors in the environment

Forces:

Differences may vary; degree to which behaviour is determined by internal or external forces or whether people have freedom to choose their own behaviour.

The Psychoanalytic Perspective:

• Sigmund Freud focused on patients with psychical symptoms without physical cause.
• Freud emphasized the importance of early childhood experiences based on his work with patients and free association.
• He believed behavior stemmed from innate sexual and aggressive impulses pushed into the unconscious, which led to defense mechanisms, though his emphasis on childhood sexuality was criticized.

The Behavioral Perspective:

• Behaviorists emphasize that our behavior is shaped by our environment and past habits.
• They believe babies are born as a ‘blank slate" and that personality develops depending experiences written on the slate.
• Underpinning psychology is empiricism.
• By ringing a bell evey time the dog was fed, Ivan Pavlov showed that animals and people can associate different events and this lead to classical conditioning.
• Classical conditioning is based on reflexes already present but people can also learn from condequences.
• Edward Throndike developed the fact that behaviour would be repeated based on satisfying consequences.
• John Watson and B.F.Skinner identified operant conditioning and that reinforcers increased likelihood of behaviour.

The Humanistic Perspective:

• Humanists focus on free will, self-actualization, subjective perceptions, and the organization of the self.
• Maslow and Rogers are founders.
• The self-image and ‘real self’ are the focus and if we don’t match how we want to be, it will cause conflict.

Positive Psychology:

• Focuses on the positive aspects of humanity and what helps humans and organizations flourish.
• It is criticised for its lack of research and for being simplistic.

The Biopsychological Perspective:

• Interest in workings of brain and hormonal system, microbiological processes of thoughts, emotions and behaviour.
• Donald Hebb explained that brains of children are better than adult brains to recover from trauma and benefit from brain development and recovery.

The Cognitive Perspective:

• Focuses on mental information processing drawn from Gestalt psychology where your senses take in information in order to make decisions, respond verbally and solve problems.
• Studies that way people have constructed their own reality as it relates to social constructionism.

The Sociocultural Perspective:

• It considers factors like sexual orientation and race.
• Gained knowledge in Western context cannot be applied universally
• Assesses whether findings are generalizable across different cultural groups tapping into indigenous and knowledge systems.
• Argues behaviour needs to be understood in the relative culture and that African context emphasises collectivism as opposed to individualism.

The Community Psychology Perspective:

• Focuses on people in communities and society, with the aim to improve mental health and quality of life.
• It is achieved through the prevention of mental health problems and early intervention in existing problems with De-institutionalisation which results in people being discharged into the community.
• Bring the services to the community.

Psychology for Africa:

• Although dominated by developments in North America, psychology in Africa still offers valuable worth, however it lacks resources.
• Cultural understanding is vital as differences in growth and development exists, and some principles may not apply.
• Societal and economic factors should be considered, as psychology has spread across colonization and globalization.
• Psychologists are likely to be influenced by their backgrounds.

Reader 1:

5 registration categories at the HPCSA after Master's degree and internship.

• Clinical psychology – assess, diagnose and intervene in hospitals etc.
• Counselling psychology - assist people deal with normal life problems.
• Educational psychology – assist children in schools and education.
• Industrial psychology – focus on relationship between people and the work they do.
• Research psychology – use procedures in order to obtain information.

Reader 2:

• Subject of psychology was first offered by philosphy
• SA psychology is closely linked to North American and European psychology which can lead to biases.

Biases:

• The academic discipline is developed in other countries.
• Most research in SA was carried out by white people.
• The development of psychological tests focuses largely on white population.
• The middle class population has been the main beneficiary of psychological services.

Shortage of black psychologists:

• Apartheid did not allow black psychologists to join.
• Only white psychologists conducted research and services.

Shortage of psychologists in general:

• Expensive to train.
• Mental health worker is a 'middle level psychologist' and not yet accepted.

The need to extend psychological services:

• Limited people being reached
• People in underprivileged communities cannot make use of services because it is expensive, far away and not suitable for them.

Commuity psychologists have to:

• Develop methods to identify and assess the needs and problems of disadvantaged communities.
• Develop methods of empowering communities to solve own problems.
• Training workshops so community members can assist each other.
• Community leaders should be trained to make known the value of psychological interventions.

Working with African traditional healers:

• These healers have an important role to play in health system.
• They understand the life and culture of African people and can therefore provide effective forms of treatment, especially psychological.