282 CONT 1 MC 2

Higher Order Conditioning

• Higher-order conditioning builds upon existing conditioning
• The conditioned stimulus (CS) from the previous learning becomes the unconditioned stimulus (US) in a new pairing
• A new neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with the new US (the previous CS) to create a new CS
• Example: A cereal box advertisement featuring Taylor Swift. A prior positive association with Taylor Swift (and feelings) can extend to the brand

Factors Influencing Conditioning

• Nature of NS and US: The physical characteristics of stimuli affect conditioning rate. Compound stimuli (multiple elements) are harder to condition. Overshadowing occurs when a more salient feature within a compound stimulus obscures learning of the other. Example: Crossing the street and taking in multiple sensory inputs about an approaching car.

• Biological Relevance (Belongingness): Conditioning is easier when stimuli naturally belong together biologically. Examples: Food rewards are more effective in training behaviors related to food search, rather than activities unrelated to natural behaviours (e.g. grooming in hamsters) or stimuli unrelated to visual cues in pigeons (e.g. auditory).

• Intensity of NS and US: A noticeable NS is crucial for learning. Higher intensity generally means more salient, but only to a point

• Temporal Aspects (Timing):

  • Short Delay: Most effective; US begins shortly after CS, allowing for overlap in presentation.
  • Long Delay: US starts significantly later than CS. Reduced effectiveness as the predictive value of the CS decreases. Learning the connection is harder.
  • Trace: US begins after CS ends. Effectiveness depends on the time gap. Shorter gaps are more effective.
  • Simultaneous: US and CS begin and end together. Less effective because perfect overlap is rare in real-world situations.
  • Backward: US starts before CS. Least effective, shows inconsistent results in lab studies, for instance, following predator attack where identifying the predator occurs after the initial attack.

• Contingency: NS and US have a strong, reliant relationship. The NS should always predict the US, and not exist independently (e.g., don't ring the bell if there's no food; avoid giving food without the bell).

• Contiguity: Events are temporally and spatially proximate (close together). This helps link the NS and US

• Intertrial Interval: Time between trials. Optimal intervals provide adequate time for processing without confusion or fading of learning.

Rescorla's Findings

• CS predictive values affect conditioning. Conditioned responses (CRs) are best when the CS accurately predicts the US.
• Useful CSs = faster learning
• Unreliable CSs = slower/no learning.

Number of Pairings

• Repeated pairings build the NS-US association.
• Initial pairings produce the strongest learning. There is a limit to intensity and to how much learning you can achieve.

Rescorla-Wagner Model

• Explains how predictions match outcomes in learning. Learning stops when expectations fully align with outcomes.

Conditioned Taste Aversion (CTA)

• Can occur with one trial and form long-lasting associations.
• Breaks the expected contiguity rules.
• Temporal gap (e.g., between eating and becoming ill) isn't an impediment.
• Biological predisposition drives aversion to specific aversive events associated with food/consumption. The NS is something we associate with food/eating (flavour, smell).
• Example: getting sick after eating a certain food will lead to avoiding that food in the future, even if the sickness occurs hours later.

Latent Inhibition

• Pre-exposure to a NS without a US makes it harder to develop a CS later.
• Example: if you get sick after eating at a new restaurant, you're more likely to associate the sickness with the location rather than the food.

Blocking

• A pre-existing effective CS blocks the learning of a new, irrelevant NS.
• Example: If a tone reliably predicts a sound, introducing a light won't lead to learning a light-sound link.

Sensory Preconditioning

• Two neutral stimuli (A&B) are frequently paired. A conditioned response (CR) to one strengthens the response to the other as well.
• One stimulus essentially drags the other along with it through shared associations.

Conditioned Emotional Response (CER)

• Emotional responses learned through classical conditioning.
• Example: "Little Albert" and fear conditioning; associating a positive/negative stimuli to a certain brand/celebrity.

Role of US on Form of CR

• The specific US can influence the form of a conditioned response (CR), even if the responses themselves are triggered by a similar US.
• Example: A pigeon's pecking response (CR) can be different depending on if rewarded for pecking for food versus water.