Questions and Answers
What is operant conditioning?
Learning based on the consequences of responding.
What is an unconditioned stimulus (US)?
A stimulus that elicits a response without prior learning.
What is social cognition learning?
How people interact with their environment and use social information.
What is learning?
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What are the three ways we learn?
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What is associative learning?
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What is classical conditioning?
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What are the four steps in classical conditioning?
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How does operant conditioning differ from classical conditioning?
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What is the law of effect?
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What was B.F. Skinner's stance on learning?
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What are the two types of reinforcement?
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What are mirror neurons?
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What is social cognitive theory?
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What are the characteristics of emotions?
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What is the difference between threat appraisals and challenge appraisals?
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What is stress?
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What is health psychology?
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What is major depressive disorder?
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What are the biological influences on depression?
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What is the biopsychosocial model of health?
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What is the vulnerability-stress model?
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What are the main types of anxiety disorders?
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What is a conditioned response (CR)?
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What is an unconditioned response (UR)?
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What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)?
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Study Notes
Learning Theories
- Operant Conditioning: Involves learning through consequences that follow behaviors; responses are either reinforced or punished.
- Associative Learning: Refers to learning that certain events occur together, linking stimuli to responses.
- Classical Conditioning: A form of associative learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus, producing a conditioned response after multiple pairings.
- Social Cognition Learning: Highlights how individuals interact with their environment, emphasizing the selection, interpretation, and use of social information in decision-making.
Types of Learning
- Three Ways of Learning: Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning are the primary methods of acquiring new behaviors.
- Observational Learning: Acquired by observing and imitating others; it involves behavioral modeling and was famously illustrated by Bandura's Bobo Doll experiment.
Conditioning Processes
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Classical Conditioning Steps:
- Begins with an unconditioned stimulus that evokes a natural response.
- Presentation of a neutral stimulus that initially elicits no response.
- Combination of the neutral stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus leads to the formation of a conditioned response.
- Over time, the neutral stimulus alone elicits a conditioned response.
Reinforcement and Punishment
- Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by favorable consequences are likely to recur; those followed by unfavorable consequences are less likely to recur.
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Types of Reinforcement:
- Positive Reinforcement: Involves adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior (e.g., giving money for good grades).
- Negative Reinforcement: Involves removing an undesired stimulus to increase a behavior (e.g., doing dishes to stop nagging).
- Distinction from Punishment: Reinforcement strengthens behaviors, while punishment aims to decrease them.
Emotional Theories
- Emotions: Short-term physiological and psychological responses to specific stimuli that prepare individuals to react.
- James-Lange Theory: Emotions arise from physiological responses; we interpret bodily reactions to feelings.
- Cannon-Bard Theory: Emotions and physiological reactions occur simultaneously yet independently after a stimulus.
- Schachter-Singer Theory: Emotion is based on physiological arousal followed by a cognitive label.
Stress and Health
- Stress: A biological and psychological response influenced by external social factors; can manifest as eustress (positive) or distress (negative).
- Biopsychosocial Model of Health: Indicates that health and illness result from a complex interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors.
- Coping Strategies: Include problem-focused coping, developing self-control, and practicing meditation to manage stress effectively.
Psychological Disorders
- Psychological Disorder: Defined by a collection of maladaptive symptoms that significantly interfere with daily functioning.
- Vulnerability-Stress Model: Illustrates how individual characteristics and environmental stressors interact, potentially leading to psychological disorders.
- Types of Anxiety Disorders: Include generalized anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder, all influenced by classical conditioning, cognition, and biology.
Major Depressive Disorder and Bipolar Disorder
- Major Depressive Disorder: Characterized by the presence of at least five symptoms of depression over a two-week period, including a depressed mood or loss of interest.
- Bipolar Disorder: Involves extreme mood fluctuations, alternating between depressive and euphoric states.
Influences on Depression
- Biological Influences: Low levels of neurotransmitters like norepinephrine and serotonin are associated with mood disorders; exercise can enhance mood through serotonin increase.
- Social-Cognitive Influences: Negative self-perceptions and rumination contribute to depression.
Attention and Stress
- Attention Systems: Comprised of the orienting, alerting, and executive systems, which regulate focus, awareness, and goal alignment, respectively.
- Stress Effects on Attention: Chronic stress can impair these systems, leading to negative thought patterns, hyper-vigilance, and impaired focus, which may result in attention deficit issues.
Positive Psychology
- Adaptive Functions of Positive Emotions: Emotions like joy, curiosity, and love enhance well-being and resilience.
- Practices for Well-Being: Strategies include recognizing three new gratitudes daily, engaging in random acts of kindness, and cultivating a positive mindset for improved life outlook.
Summary of Health Psychology
- Health Psychology Focus: Examines how psychological factors influence physical health, emphasizing mental and emotional well-being’s role in overall health outcomes.
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