Psychology: Classical Conditioning Overview

Learning Lecture Overview

• Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or mental processes resulting from practice or experience
• The lecture covers Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, Cognitive-Social Learning, and The Biology of Learning

Classical Conditioning

• Definition: Learning when a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response
• Key Concepts:
  • Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that doesn't naturally bring about the response of interest
  • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response (UCR) without previous conditioning
  • Unconditioned Response (UCR): An unlearned reaction to an UCS without prior conditioning
  • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previous NS that, through repeated pairings with an UCS, now causes a conditioned response (CR)
  • Conditioned Response (CR): A learned reaction to a CS

Classical Conditioning Process

• Before Conditioning: UCS (e.g., food) → UCR (e.g., salivation); NS (e.g., bell) → No response
• During Conditioning: NS (bell) is paired with UCS (food) → UCR (salivation)
• After Conditioning: CS (bell) → CR (salivation)

Key Principles of Classical Conditioning

• Acquisition: The phase in which a response is first established. Organisms learn to associate a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.
• Extinction: Occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus. Conditioned response weakens and eventually disappears.
• Spontaneous Recovery: The conditioned response can suddenly reappear when the conditioned stimulus is presented again after a rest period. Usually temporary and weaker than the initial response.

Generalization and Discrimination

• Generalization: Learned response to not only the original stimulus but also to other similar stimuli.
• Discrimination: Learned response to a specific stimulus but not to other, similar stimuli.

Watson's Contribution

• Conditioned Emotional Response (CER): A classically conditioned emotional response to a previously neutral stimulus.
  • Example: Little Albert and the white rat experiment

Application in Daily Life

• Classical conditioning involves a neutral stimulus being paired with a natural stimulus, eventually eliciting the same response as the natural stimulus.
  • Example: Smartphone notifications. The neutral stimulus (notification sound) is repeatedly paired with a natural stimulus (something exciting or stressful) and leads to an emotional response (stress or excitement).
  • Example: Alarm bell. Alarm sound (neutral stimulus) repeatedly paired with waking up (natural stimulus) becoming associated with being alert (conditioned response).

Operant Conditioning

• Operant/Instrumental Conditioning: Learning where voluntary responses are controlled by their consequences.
• A type of learning where behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences.
• Specifically through reinforcement (increase behavior) or punishment (decrease behavior)

Thorndike's Contribution

• Law of Effect: The probability of an action being repeated is strengthened when followed by a pleasurable or satisfying consequence.

Reinforcement and Positive Reinforcement

• Positive Reinforcement: Adding something pleasant to increase behavior.
  • Example: Giving praise or rewards for completing tasks.

Negative Reinforcement

• Negative Reinforcement: Removing something unpleasant to increase behavior.
  • Example: Turning off a loud noise once a task is completed.

Punishment (Positive and Negative)

• Positive Punishment: Adding something unpleasant to decrease behavior.
  • Example: Giving a parking ticket for illegal parking.
• Negative Punishment: Removing something pleasant to decrease behavior.
  • Example: Taking away a toy from a child who misbehaves.

Reinforcers (Primary and Secondary)

• Primary Reinforcers: Naturally reinforcing; satisfy basic biological needs (food, water, sleep).
• Secondary Reinforcers: Learned reinforcers that get their power through conditioning. (money, praise).

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Reinforcement occurs on a partial/intermittent schedule.
• Fixed ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses.
• Variable ratio: Reinforcement after a variable number of responses.
• Fixed interval: Reinforcement after a fixed amount of time.
• Variable interval: Reinforcement after a variable amount of time.

Shaping

• A technique used in operant conditioning where you gradually teach a new behavior by reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behavior.

Cognitive-Social Learning

• A way of learning that combines thinking (cognitive processes) and observing others (social influence).
• It involves observing others, understanding the results of their actions, and deciding whether to imitate their behavior.

Key Ideas in Cognitive-Social Learning

• Observational Learning: Learning by watching others (e.g., child learning to tie shoes).
• Modeling: Imitating the behavior of others (e.g., a child modeling actions of a teacher).

Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment

• Children watched adults interact with a Bobo doll and then modeled that behavior themselves.
  • Demonstrates observational learning.

Four Key Processes in Observational Learning

• Attention: Paying attention to the model.
• Retention: Remembering what the model did.
• Reproduction: Being able to reproduce the behavior.
• Motivation: Wanting to imitate the behavior.

Insight Learning, Cognitive Maps, and Latent Learning

• Insight Learning: Sudden understanding of a problem, typically following a "lightbulb moment".
• Cognitive Maps: Mental representations of spatial layout.
• Latent Learning: Hidden learning that's not evident until a need arises (e.g., knowing a route despite not actively trying to learn it).

Biology of Learning

• Neuroscience and Learning: Brain adapts based on experiences and practice.
• Neurons and Synapses: Cells responsible for processing/transmitting info; Synapses are gaps between neurons.
• Learning and Brain Structures: Different regions play roles in various learning types.
• Memory systems: Short-term, working, and long-term.

Neuroplasticity

• The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections in response to experience and learning,

Neuroscience and Learning in Day-to-Day Life

• Learning skills/habits.
• Breaking bad habits/behaviors.
• Studying techniques (spaced repetition).
• Emotional effects.
• Mindfulness impact on learning and memory