Psychology Chapter: Understanding Emotions

Study Notes

Difficult to define
Three common characteristics:
- Internal physiological arousal
- Expressive behavior both in the face and body
- Cognitive appraisal

Common sense view of emotions: we feel an emotion and then experience physiological changes
James-Lange view of emotions: we experience physiological changes and then feel an emotion

Physiological and behavioral responses are experienced independently of emotional responses

Facial expressions
- Charles Darwin (1872) identified six basic emotions: happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust
- Paul Ekman et al. later studied these six emotions, adding contempt (1972)
- Carroll Izard et al. suggested that the basic emotions are happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, surprise, interest, distress, shame, and guilt
- All of these emotions likely have a survival value
Body language

Facial-feedback hypothesis
- Fritz Strack et al. (1988) demonstrated that the facial expressions activated can influence emotional experience

Schachter and Singer (1962) proposed that our emotions are determined by two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation

Dutton and Aron (1974) showed that men who crossed a wobbly bridge were more likely to be attracted to an interviewer, misattributing their arousal to the woman

Happiness is a dynamic state in which we experience joy, contentment, and satisfaction with life

Some factors are found to be associated with happiness, such as personality, social relationships, and work

Happiness appears to be influenced by both nature and nurture
- Genetics are estimated to account for about 50% of our happiness

While money can buy some things that contribute to happiness, a strong correlation between money and happiness does not exist
After reaching a certain level of income, happiness plateaus

Social-comparison theory explains that we compare our wealth to others, which can lead to dissatisfaction
There is a biological set-point for happiness that we tend to return to, regardless of external factors.

Motivation is the energy and direction of behavior
William McDougall (1908) developed instinct theory, which is part of evolutionary psychology
Clark Hull (1943) developed drive theory

Abraham Maslow created the hierarchy of needs, which posits that humans are motivated by a hierarchy of needs, starting with basic needs and progressing to higher-level needs
The hierarchy of needs (bottom to top):
- Physiological needs: Essential for survival (e.g., food, water, sleep)
- Safety needs: Feeling secure and protected from harm
- Social needs: Belonging, love, acceptance, and connection
- Esteem needs: Self-respect, confidence, achievement, and recognition
- Self-actualization: The desire to fulfill one's potential and reach peak experiences.
- Self-transcendence: Connecting to something larger than oneself, finding meaning beyond personal goals

The sexual response cycle has four distinct phases:
- Excitement: Increased arousal and physiological changes
- Plateau: Intensification of excitement, reaching a peak
- Orgasm: Intense pleasure and physiological release
- Resolution: Return to a pre-arousal state

Sexual orientation refers to a person's emotional and sexual attraction to others
Homosexuality: Psychological and biological theories attempt to explain the origins of homosexuality

Humans are social animals, and the need to belong is a fundamental need
Baumeister and Leary (1995) emphasized the importance of the need to belong for survival and well-being

David McClelland (1953) identified the need for achievement, characterized by an intense drive to accomplish challenging tasks and outperform others
The need for achievement correlates with several factors, such as setting high goals, persisting in the face of challenges, and taking risks

David Winter (1973) identified the need for power, characterized by a strong desire to influence others, acquire prestige, and exert control
People high in the need for power often seek positions of leadership and influence.

Amy Wrzesniewski distinguished between three perspectives on work:
- Job: Viewed simply as a means to earn money
- Career: Perceived as a path for advancement and success
- Calling: Experienced as a meaningful and fulfilling purpose in life

Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi conceptualized the concept of "flow" as a state of complete absorption and engagement in an activity, often experienced in challenging but attainable tasks