Psychology Chapter Overview
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Questions and Answers

Which school of thought in psychology emphasizes the importance of unconscious processes in personality development?

  • Gestalt Psychology
  • Behaviorism
  • Psychoanalysis (correct)
  • Functionalism

Which early perspective in psychology aimed to understand how the mind helps an organism adapt to its environment?

  • Psychoanalysis
  • Functionalism (correct)
  • Behaviorism
  • Structuralism

Which psychological perspective focuses solely on observable actions and behaviors?

  • Psychoanalytic perspective
  • Cognitive perspective
  • Behavioral perspective (correct)
  • Subjectivist perspective

Which perspective in psychology centers on how people create and interpret their social realities, depending on their culture and personal history?

<p>Subjectivist perspective (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What area of psychology studies the patterns formed by stimuli and the organization of experience?

<p>Gestalt Psychology (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary distinction between research psychologists and practitioners?

<p>Research psychologists create knowledge, whereas practitioners apply existing knowledge. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the provided content, if you attempt to figure out why you did poorly on a test, what are you engaging in?

<p>Everyday, informal research. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which example below illustrates basic research in the context of aggression?

<p>Studying the biological factors associated with aggressive behavior. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main similarity among all psychologists, despite differences in their focus and approach?

<p>Their reliance on the scientific method. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What would be an aim of applied research regarding helping behaviors, according to the text?

<p>To reduce the amount of apathy among bystanders in aggressive situations. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the text imply about the practice of 'everyday science'?

<p>It can reveal principles of human behavior, but be unscientific in the way data is interpreted. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the text use the breakdown of a friendship between Monisha and Charlie to illustrate?

<p>An example of an everyday scenario where people try to identify cause-and-effect. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the content, what is considered data in the context of research?

<p>Any information collected through formal observation or measurement. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the tendency to believe we could have predicted an event after it has already happened?

<p>Hindsight bias (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the scientific method?

<p>A set of assumptions, rules, and procedures used for empirical research (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do empirical research methods involve?

<p>Collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following cannot be scientifically studied based on the provided content?

<p>The validity of religious beliefs (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Statements that are determined to be accurate through empirical study are referred to as:

<p>Facts (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is it that science cannot prove or disprove values?

<p>Values are neither true nor false (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Although values cannot be proven or disproven by science, what can science provide to help people develop them?

<p>Factual information through measured methods (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do values influence scientific research?

<p>They determine which research is deemed acceptable and important. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What best describes intuition as a way of understanding the world?

<p>Thinking that is automatic, unconscious and driven by experience, resulting in a subjective view. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a flaw associated with eyewitness testimonies?

<p>Eyewitnesses are often equally as confident whether they are right or wrong about their identifications. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the text suggest about how individuals often interpret new information?

<p>People often trust information from familiar sources and may not investigate scientific findings. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of hindsight bias, as described in the text?

<p>A tendency to believe that we could have predicted the outcome of an event after knowing its result. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main problem associated with the tendency of individuals to easily accept explanations?

<p>It may cause people to think that they understand the causes of events when they do not. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the example of 'opposites attract' and 'birds of a feather flock together' demonstrate in relation to hindsight bias?

<p>The example highlights how people tend to accept presented outcomes as true and believe they would have predicted them in advance. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key suggestion made by the text regarding the acceptance of explanations?

<p>Individuals should test explanations thoroughly rather than accepting them at face value. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between biases and our perceptions, according to the text?

<p>Biases often lead to flawed conclusions and distortions in our perceptions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the primary focus of experimental psychologists?

<p>Conducting lab studies of learning, motivation, and cognition. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A psychologist is interested in examining the impact of different teaching styles on student performance. Which specialty area does this align to?

<p>Educational and school psychology (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the focus of counseling psychology?

<p>Addressing less severe problems, with some overlap with clinical psychology. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A psychologist is studying how people's attitudes are formed and changed. To which area does this work most closely align?

<p>Social psychology (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of the experimental method in psychological research?

<p>To test hypotheses about cause and effect by controlling variables. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In experimental research, what role does the independent variable play?

<p>It is the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of a simple experimental design?

<p>Manipulating one independent variable and observing its effect on one dependent variable. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is random assignment of participants essential in experimental design?

<p>To control variables and minimize the effects of other factors. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In experimental research, what is the primary purpose of including a control group?

<p>To serve as a baseline against which to compare the effect of the independent variable (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A researcher finds a correlation coefficient of $r = -0.85$ between two variables. What can be concluded?

<p>There is a strong negative relationship between the variables (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which research method is most appropriate when direct experimental manipulation is not feasible?

<p>The correlational method (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does statistically significant difference between experimental groups and control groups mean ?

<p>The difference is unlikely to have occurred due to chance, suggesting a real effect of the manipulation. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what context might surveys be used instead of direct observation ?

<p>When direct observation is too difficult or impractical. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which correlation coefficient shows the strongest relationship between two variables?

<p>$r = -0.9$ (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the ethical principle of 'informed consent' primarily ensure in psychological research involving human participants?

<p>That participants fully understand the research and agree to participate without coercion (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the ethical guidelines in psychological research, what justifies the use of painful or harmful procedures on animals?

<p>The potential for the knowledge gained from the study to be important and unobtainable through other means (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

What is Psychology?

The systematic and objective study of behavior and mental processes.

Basic Research

Research that aims to increase our knowledge of the fundamental principles of behavior

Applied Research

Research that aims to solve practical problems.

Scientific Method

A systematic way of gathering knowledge through observation and experimentation.

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The Problem of Intuition

The tendency to rely on personal experiences and intuitive judgments rather than objective evidence.

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Data

Information collected through formal observation or measurement.

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Everyday Science

The scientific study of everyday behavior and social interactions.

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Unscientific Data Collection

Collecting and interpreting information in a way that is not always accurate or objective.

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Functionalism

The study of how the mind works to help organisms adapt to their environment.

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Gestalt Psychology

A school of psychology that focuses on the patterns formed by stimuli and the organization of experience.

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Psychoanalysis

A theory that emphasizes the role of unconscious processes in personality development and motivation.

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Behaviorism

The study of behavior without reference to consciousness.

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Subjectivist Perspective

A perspective in psychology that focuses on how people actively construct and interpret their social worlds.

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Intuition

A mental shortcut that relies on experience and emotion, often leading to quick but potentially inaccurate judgments.

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Hindsight Bias

The tendency to feel certain about an event after it has happened, even if you couldn't have predicted it before.

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Confirmation Bias

The tendency to focus on evidence that confirms our existing beliefs while ignoring evidence that contradicts them.

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Overconfidence

When we overestimate the accuracy of our own predictions, especially after an event has already happened.

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Personal Experience Over Scientific Evidence

The tendency to rely on personal experience and trusted sources over scientific research, leading to potential misconceptions.

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Perceptual Biases

When our beliefs about the world can influence our interpretations of events, even if those interpretations are inaccurate.

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Intuitive Reasoning

The tendency to fall for explanations that feel right, even if they aren't supported by evidence.

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Unscientific Statements

Statements that cannot be objectively measured or determined to be true or false.

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Facts

Objective statements that are verified through empirical study.

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Values

Personal statements that reflect individual opinions or beliefs.

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Religious Beliefs

Statements based on faith or spiritual beliefs.

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Opinions

Individual opinions or judgments.

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Research Informing Values

Research that provides factual information to help people make informed decisions about values.

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Psychological research

The act of observing and testing a hypothesis using a scientific method, with the goal of understanding and explaining psychological phenomena.

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Independent variable

A variable that is manipulated by the experimenter to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

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Dependent variable

A variable that is measured to determine if it is affected by changes in the independent variable.

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Control group

A group of participants in an experiment that does not receive the treatment or manipulation being studied.

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Experimental group

A group of participants in an experiment that receives the treatment or manipulation being studied.

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Random assignment

The process of randomly assigning participants to experimental and control groups to ensure that groups are equivalent at the start of the experiment.

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Experimental method

A research method that aims to control all variables except the ones being studied, allowing for the study of cause and effect.

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Simple experimental design

A simple research design where one independent variable is manipulated and observed for its effect on one dependent variable.

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Correlational Method

A research method used when experiments are not feasible. It examines the relationship between two naturally occurring variables. It doesn't prove cause and effect, but shows how strongly they are connected.

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Correlation Coefficient (r)

A number between -1.00 and +1.00 that measures the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables. A perfect correlation is ±1.00, while 0 indicates no relationship.

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Observational Method

A research method that involves observing and recording naturally occurring behavior without direct manipulation. It can happen in a controlled setting or in everyday situations.

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Surveys & Interviews

A common way to collect data indirectly through surveys or interviews. It involves asking people questions to gather their thoughts, beliefs, and behaviors.

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Case History

Gathering information about a person's past history or life experiences. This can include information about their upbringing, relationships, and significant events.

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Ethical Principles in Human Research

Psychological research involving human subjects must minimize risks, ensure informed consent, and protect participant privacy.

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Ethical Principles in Animal Research

When conducting research with animals, any pain or harm must be justified by the potential knowledge gained. There should be a balance between animal welfare and the advancement of science.

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Study Notes

Introduction to Psychology

  • Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
  • The word "psychology" comes from Greek words "psyche" (meaning life) and "logos" (meaning explanation).
  • Psychologists systematically collect research data and use mathematical formulas to analyze results.
  • Scientific research methods are crucial to understanding psychology.

What is Psychology and What Topics do Psychologists Study?

  • Psychology is a scientific study, focusing on uncovering answers to questions like "Why do people help others?"
  • Psychologists conduct research to understand behaviors and mental processes.
  • Psychologists study observable behaviors(things you can see) and unobservable mental processes (thoughts, feelings, dreams).
  • Psychologists focus on specific goals in research (basic - expand knowledge, applied - solve problems)

Psychology as a Science

  • All humans are scientists as they ask and answer questions about the world.
  • Psychologists collect data to understand behavior and predictions.
  • People perform everyday research by trying to understand why something happened.
  • People are "everyday scientists" who question behaviors, try to understand and predict their own and others' behaviors.

The Problem of Intuition

  • Everyday research can be flawed because the way people collect data is not always scientific.
  • Intuition can be experiential, emotional, automatic, and unconscious.
  • People often adopt explanations for events that seem right, as truth without careful analysis.
  • Eyewitnesses to events can be confident when their accounts are incorrect, just as often as when they are accurate.
  • There are biases in how people perceive events and receive information.

Hindsight Bias

  • When we learn about the outcome of an event (e.g., research results), we often believe we could have predicted the outcome, even beforehand.
  • The tendency to believe that we could have predicted something that has already occurred is called hindsight bias.
  • This tendency can make research findings seem more believable than they might actually be.

Why Psychologists Rely on Empirical Methods

  • All scientists use empirical research to study.
  • Empirical research is conducted using assumptions, rules, and procedures called the scientific method.
  • Empirical research includes collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data, drawing conclusions and sharing information; important for studying behaviors.
  • Scientific studies are not always able to answer every question; certain values, beliefs, opinions are beyond the bounds of scientific research.

The Study of Psychology (Perspectives)

  • Psychology can be approached from several perspectives (biological, behavioral, cognitive, psychoanalytic, subjectivist).
  • Biological perspective - links actions to events in the body (e.g., the brain's functions and nervous system).
  • Behavioral perspective - focuses only on observable and measurable activities.
  • Cognitive perspective - explores mental processes like perceiving, remembering, etc.
  • Psychoanalytic perspective: Emphasizes unconscious motives.
  • Subjectivist perspective - analyzes how individuals actively interpret their social worlds (based on culture, personal history).

What Do Psychologists Do?

  • Psychologists teach and conduct research in colleges and universities.
  • Many provide mental health services directly to individuals (e.g., clinical).
  • Psychologists conduct research and apply findings in non-academic settings.
  • Psychologists combine teaching, research and direct service (e.g., counseling.)

Specialties in Psychology

  • There are many different specialties and perspectives in Psychology.
  • These specialties add to our depth of knowledge in the field.
  • This diversity allows for a wide array of career options in the field.
  • Several specialties in Psychology include: experimental psychology (learning/perception), educational psychology (children's intellectual, social and emotional development), clinical psychology (evaluation, diagnosis and treatment of mental and behavioral disorders), counseling psychology (less severe issues), developmental psychology (human growth and development throughout their lifecycle), cognitive psychology (higher-order mental processes like memory, creativity), gender/cultural psychology (similarities/differences between groups), industrial-organizational psychology (workplace issues with employee selections, and group motivations), and social psychology (social influences on individual behaviors - like prejudice, and aggression).

Psychological Research

  • Psychological research uses scientific methodologies.
  • Hypothesis generation and testing are essential steps in psychological research.
  • Experiments, correlational studies and observational methods are important approaches in psychological research.
  • Basic ethical principles are part of scientific research and include respect, informed consent, and the right to privacy
  • Other key principles include minimizing harm and careful procedures when using animal subjects

Challenges of Studying Psychology

  • Psychological experiences are complex and difficult to predict.
  • Individual differences make predictions challenging.
  • Human behavior cannot be explained through a single variable, it is multi-factorial, influenced by many variables (e.g., genetic factors, personal factors and cultural factors )

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Introduction to Psychology Lecture 2 PDF

Description

This quiz explores fundamental concepts in psychology, including various schools of thought, the distinction between research and applied psychology, and key perspectives on behavior and social realities. Test your knowledge on topics ranging from unconscious processes to the nature of aggression research. Perfect for students looking to reinforce their understanding of psychology basics.

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