Psychology Chapter on Thinking and Decision-Making
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Questions and Answers

What term is used to describe emotional memories that are vividly recalled but still reconstructive in nature?

  • Iowa memories
  • Affect heuristic
  • Flashbulb memories (correct)
  • Emotional cognition

    • Silver medalists at the Olympics usually feel happier than bronze medalists.

    False

    What is the Iowa Gambling Task used to assess?

    Decision-making and emotional reasoning

    Damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex can lead to poor choices on the ________.

    <p>Iowa Gambling Task</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following age groups with their performance on the Iowa Gambling Task:

    <p>14-17 year-olds = Outperform 11-13 year-olds = Average performance 9-10 year-olds = Below average performance Adults = Demonstrate advanced decision-making</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT identified as a primary emotion?

    <p>Joy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The amygdala processes emotional meaning while the left hemisphere is responsible for emotional feelings.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three parts of all emotions?

    <p>Physical changes, cognitive interpretation, social and cultural factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The hormone __________ is linked to trusting behavior.

    <p>oxytocin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is associated with arousal during stress?

    <p>Norepinephrine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match each hormone to its primary function:

    <p>Norepinephrine = Arousal and alertness during stress Adrenaline = Response to physical or emotional stress Oxytocin = Encouragement of trust and bonding Cortisol = Regulation of stress responses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The short route for emotional information goes from the thalamus directly to the cortex.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one primary emotion that Ekman identified.

    <p>Fear</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is confirmation bias?

    <p>The tendency to ignore evidence that contradicts your beliefs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Illusory correlation refers to correctly identifying correlations between two events.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who proposed the concept of cognitive dissonance?

    <p>Leon Festinger</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The tendency to focus on a limited amount of stimuli in a situation is called __________.

    <p>Selective Attention</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which bias involves the belief that nothing bad will ever happen to you?

    <p>Optimism Bias</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the cognitive biases with their definitions:

    <p>Hindsight Bias = Overestimating the predictability of an outcome Belief Perseverance = Holding onto beliefs despite contradictory evidence Optimism Bias = Thinking bad events are unlikely to happen Illusory Correlation = Misidentifying non-existent correlations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one potential negative consequence of schemas?

    <p>They lead to stereotypical thinking.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Belief perseverance reduces with the presentation of new contradictory evidence.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Intuitive thinking is typically a conscious process that involves careful deliberation.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) investigate in their study?

    <p>The effects of payment on perceptions of a boring task.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one factor that the Theory of Planned Behavior states influences decision-making.

    <p>Attitudes, subjective norms, or perceived behavioral control.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The study by Darley and Gross (1983) demonstrated how schemas about a person’s socioeconomic status can affect predictions about their __________.

    <p>outcomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Bransford and Johnson's study (1972), what helped participants recall details better?

    <p>Hearing the title of the speech beforehand.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the researchers with their findings related to schemas:

    <p>Darley and Gross = Predictions based on socioeconomic status Bransford and Johnson = Better recall with a title before a speech Anderson and Pichert = Memory influenced by perspective Brewer and Treyens = Recall affected by office schema</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What correlation was found between condom use and intentions according to Albarracin et al. (2001)?

    <p>0.45</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Rational thinking (System 2) assumes complete knowledge and high capacity for computation.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Heuristics always guarantee correct solutions.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main reason people use heuristics over algorithms?

    <p>Heuristics are easier and quicker to use than algorithms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of thinking is primarily associated with gut feelings and automatic responses?

    <p>Intuitive thinking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ______ heuristic relies on emotions rather than objective facts.

    <p>Affect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match each heuristic with its description:

    <p>Affect Heuristic = Relying on emotions rather than facts Availability Heuristic = Relying on prominent information Representativeness Heuristic = Assuming similarity based on past experience Anchoring Heuristic = Relying on an initial estimate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of heuristic involves the belief that a vivid case will influence perceptions more than statistical data?

    <p>Availability Heuristic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    System 1 thinking is usually associated with deliberate problem-solving and analysis.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a major limitation of the research conducted by Albarracin et al. regarding condom use?

    <p>Attitudes can change and self-reported attitudes may not reflect actual behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes a concept in schema theory?

    <p>A category in our mind for a class of objects with common traits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Bottom-up processing relies on previous experiences and expectations.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the step-by-step sequences we expect in a given situation according to schema theory?

    <p>Scripts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ________ refers to the process where a new object is introduced into an existing schema without changing the schema itself.

    <p>Assimilation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the types of schemas with their definitions:

    <p>Self-schemas = Guiding expectations about ourselves Scripts = Step-by-step sequences in specific situations Social schemas = Generalizations about groups of people</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process involves adjusting existing schemas based on new learning?

    <p>Accommodation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Schemas are influenced only by current information and do not evolve over time.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of top-down processing mentioned in the content?

    <p>The Rat Man study</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Learning Outcomes

    • This unit focuses on schema theory, rational and intuitive thinking, thinking and decision-making biases, and the effect of emotion.
    • Students need to describe schema theory and research studies related to it.
    • Both rational (deliberate) and intuitive (automatic) thinking processes need to be described.
    • Students should discuss at least two biases in thinking and decision-making.
    • The extent to which emotion affects thinking and decision-making should be evaluated.

    Units of Thought

    • Concepts can be defined as categories or labels for objects with common traits.
    • Basic concepts are those that are neither too broad nor too specific; these are learned and used often.
    • Prototypes are the "average" or most representative examples of a concept.

    Combining Concepts

    • Concepts combine to form propositions, representing a single distinct idea.
    • Cognitive schemas group propositions into mental networks that represent world assumptions.
    • Schemas are influenced by mental images, which don't necessarily need to be visual.

    Bottom-up and Top-Down Processing

    • Bottom-up processing originates directly from sensory input, unaffected by prior experiences.
    • Top-down processing uses prior experiences (schemas) to guide information processing.
    • The Rat Man experiment (Bugelski & Alampay, 1961) exemplifies top-down processing biases.

    Types of Schemas

    • Self-schemas represent personal expectations.
    • Scripts are step-by-step sequences of expected actions in specific situations.
    • Social schemas are generalizations, or stereotypes, about groups of people.

    Schemata Adaptation

    • Schemas are derived from past experiences and adapted as new information is encountered.
    • Assimilation occurs when new information is integrated into existing schemas without schema change.
    • Accommodation occurs when schemas change in response to new learning.

    Schemas in Action

    • Schemas influence beliefs and expectations concerning the world, without necessarily needing conscious attention.
    • This leads to shortcuts, but can also promote stereotypical thinking.
    • Studies such as Darley and Gross (1983) demonstrate how schemas of different qualities lead to different predictions.

    Cognitive Processes

    • The IB exam might require students to address one cognitive process; options are memory, thinking/problem-solving.
    • Schemas are tools that support cognitive processes.

    Types of Thinking

    • Intuitive thinking (System 1) is automatic and happens without conscious deliberation.
    • Intuitive thinking in people, such as in a study by Denes-Raj & Epstein (1994), can lead them to go against rational thought when choosing.
    • Iowa Gambling Task can be used to measure intuitive thinking.
    • Rational thinking (System 2) is conscious and involves full knowledge and computational capacity.

    Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)

    • TPB explains the link between attitudes and behavior in decision-making.
    • The human problem-solver is assumed to be rational and use environmental information effectively.
    • Factors influencing actions are attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control.

    TPB in Action

    • Studies, such as Albarracin et al. (2001), examined TPB's effectiveness in predicting condom use.
    • The study revealed correlations between intentions, attitudes, subjective norms, and behavioral control.
    • Study showed a notable limitation: self-reported attitudes can sometimes differ from actual behavior.

    Problem Solving

    • Reasoning is a form of directed thought that analyzes information to draw conclusions.
    • Algorithms are step-by-step procedures that guarantee accurate solutions, but are often time-consuming.
    • Humans utilize heuristics, or mental shortcuts (e.g., using intuitive thinking), as an alternative.

    Types of Heuristics

    • Affect heuristic relies on emotional responses rather than facts.
    • Availability heuristic relies on easily accessible information, whereas availability can lead to overestimation of event frequency.
    • Representativeness heuristic focuses on observed similarities to past events.
    • Anchoring heuristic relies on initial estimates to form judgments.

    Describing Heuristics/Biases

    • An availability heuristic is where people use quick judgments based readily available information.
    • This is driven by ease of recall: some memories are better remembered and events leaving an impression, are seen as more significant.

    Cognitive Biases

    • Illusions of correlation are false perceptions of relationships between events.
    • Hindsight bias is overestimating the prediction accuracy of an outcome after it occurred.
    • Confirmation bias happens when people prefer information that supports their existing beliefs and overlook contradictory information.
    • Belief perseverance means sticking to beliefs, despite evidence disproving them.
    • Optimism bias means expecting positive outcomes.
    • Selective attention limits attention to specific stimuli.
    • Matching bias is focusing on named values instead of supporting logic or rules.

    Wason's Four-Card Problem

    •  A classic problem highlighting reasoning biases.
    •  The problem presents a rule and requires identifying what cards need to be shown to verify the rule.

    Research on Cognitive Biases

    • Studies like those by Anderson, Lepper, & Ross (1980) and Chapman & Chapman (1968) explored the persistence of beliefs and biases in perception.

    Cognitive Dissonance

    • Cognitive dissonance is the uncomfortable feeling when attitudes clash with behavior.
    •  This can drive conformity and justification of effort.
    • Studies like those of Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) investigated how rewards affect perceptions of tasks.

    Emotions

    • Emotions are individual feelings triggered by significant stimuli.
    • All emotions include three parts: physical changes, cognitive interpretations, and social/cultural influences.

    Emotions and the Face

    • Primary emotions, such as anger, happiness, fear, surprise, disgust, sadness, and contempt, are present from birth (Ekman, 1997).
    • Secondary emotions are influenced by culture and age.

    Emotions and the Brain

    • The right brain hemisphere processes emotions, whereas the left hemisphere interprets their meaning.
    • The amygdala is crucial for emotions, particularly fear.
    • It quickly evaluates incoming sensory data for significance and makes quick processing decisions.
    • Pathways to trigger response include short, quick routes through the thalamus, to the amygdala and longer routes that include the cortex and hippocampus.

    Emotions and Hormones

    • Norepinephrine and adrenaline are stress-related hormones impacting arousal and alertness.
    • These hormones affect the brain, but the types of brain patterns can vary during emotional arousal.
    • Oxytocin is strongly associated with trust behavior.

    Emotions and Cognition

    •  Emotional events are often retained as flashbulb memories, which are easily recalled, though possibly inaccurate.
    • Emotions can influence thinking and decision-making, such as in the use of the affect heuristic when emotions are used as shortcuts to judgment instead of logic.
    • Perceptions of outcomes in some situations can influence emotional reactions.
    • Emotions can affect cognitive processes, particularly emotional reasoning.

    The Iowa Gambling Task

    • The Iowa Gambling Task assesses the role of emotional reasoning in decision-making.
    • Damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VPC) can lead to poor choices.
    • Development of the VPC, and its influence on emotional reasoning, can vary throughout puberty.

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    Description

    Explore the complexities of schema theory, biases in decision-making, and the influence of emotion on rational and intuitive thinking. This quiz covers essential concepts and research studies related to cognitive processes and mental networks. Dive into the ways our thoughts shape our understanding and choices.

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