Psychology Chapter on Stress Responses
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Psychology Chapter on Stress Responses

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Questions and Answers

What can trigger stress in daily life?

  • A dead cell phone
  • Public speaking
  • Difficult math problems
  • All of the above (correct)

    • What does the sympathetic nervous system prepare the body for under stress?

    Fight or flight response

    Prolonged stress can lead to negative health effects.

    True

    Hans Selye proposed that the body's adaptive response to stress is called the __________.

    <p>general adaptation syndrome (GAS)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What physiological changes occur during the alarm reaction phase of GAS?

    <p>Heart rate increases, blood is diverted to skeletal muscles, and resources are mobilized.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What impact can severe childhood stress have on adults?

    <p>Increased risk of heart disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is psychoneuroimmunology?

    <p>The study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes affect the immune system.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Stress does not affect immune functioning.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of cells are responsible for attacking cancer cells?

    <p>T lymphocytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What general effect does stress have on healing?

    <p>Slows down healing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Stress can weaken a person's ability to fight off __________.

    <p>cancer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does James advise to feel cheerful?

    <p>Sit up cheerfully, look around cheerfully, and act as if cheerfulness were already there.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Facial expressions can only communicate emotions, but do not influence feelings.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which emotion is most readily identified by people from images of faces?

    <p>Happiness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The _____ feedback effect explains how our facial expressions can trigger emotional feelings.

    <p>facial</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What behavior does the behavior feedback effect describe?

    <p>The tendency of behavior to influence our own and others’ thoughts, feelings, and actions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following expresses the concept of behavior feedback?

    <p>Walking with short, shuffling steps</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How can stress have positive effects when perceived as challenges?

    <p>Stress can mobilize the immune system and motivate us to solve problems.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three main types of stressors?

    <p>Catastrophes, significant life changes, and daily hassles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does a stressful event like Hurricane Katrina affect emotional health?

    <p>Increases suicide rates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Young adults often report lower stress levels than older adults.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these risk factors increases the risk of coronary heart disease? (Select all that apply)

    <p>Obesity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary cause of coronary heart disease?

    <p>Clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Type A personalities are characterized by being competitive and verbally aggressive.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which personality type is linked to a higher incidence of heart attacks?

    <p>Type A</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is catharsis in psychology?

    <p>The idea that releasing aggressive energy relieves aggressive urges.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is most closely linked to coronary heart disease among Type A individuals?

    <p>Anger</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Pessimism has been linked with a higher risk of heart disease.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is psychoneuroimmunology?

    <p>The study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The phrase 'tend-and-befriend' is associated with which gender's response to stress?

    <p>women</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What typically happens to stress hormone levels in Type A individuals compared to Type B individuals?

    <p>They are higher</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do we communicate nonverbally?

    <p>By reading body language</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A glance can communicate intimacy.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What emotion do people perceive when they see someone with arms raised and a slight smile?

    <p>Pride</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a Duchenne smile?

    <p>A genuine smile involving the activation of muscles under the eyes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Do women generally outperform men at reading emotional cues from thin slices of behavior?

    <p>Yes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Men are generally more expressive than women.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Facial expressions can reveal emotions that people may be trying to ______.

    <p>conceal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following emotions with their corresponding physical expressions:

    <p>Joy = Smiling Fear = Raised eyebrows and widened eyes Disgust = Wrinkled nose Anger = Frowning and narrowing eyes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Paul Ekman and Wallace Friesen discover about facial expressions?

    <p>Facial expressions can convey universal emotions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do people from different cultures likely differ in emotional expressiveness?

    <p>Cultures emphasizing individuality show visible emotions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Blind children show different facial expressions than sighted children.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What emotion do people often attribute to women more than men?

    <p>Empathy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If you express an emotion outwardly, it can influence how you ______.

    <p>feel</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What strategies are implemented to promote health?

    <p>Strategies that prevent illness and enhance wellness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do pessimists attribute their poor performance to?

    <p>Lack of ability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Optimists tend to enjoy better health.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How much lower is the death rate for the most optimistic individuals compared to the least optimistic?

    <p>30 percent lower.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following can help manage stress?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the effects of laughter according to the content?

    <p>It eases stress, strengthens immune activity, and promotes relaxation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What benefits do optimists experience in a stressful situation?

    <p>Smaller increases in blood pressure and quicker recovery from heart surgery.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Social support can reduce ______ hormones.

    <p>stress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Divorce predicts better health outcomes compared to remaining married.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can pets provide in terms of health benefits?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is aerobic exercise?

    <p>Sustained, oxygen-consuming exertion that increases heart and lung fitness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Aerobic exercise is linked to lower risks of many cancer types.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What three issues have engaged developmental psychologists?

    <p>Nature and nurture, continuity and stages, stability and change.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nature and nurture interact to influence our development; nature refers to our __________, while nurture refers to our __________.

    <p>genetic inheritance, experiences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of development is seen as gradual and continuous?

    <p>Riding an escalator</p> Signup and view all the answers

    All characteristics of a person's temperament change significantly as they age.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are teratogens?

    <p>Agents such as viruses and drugs that can damage an embryo or fetus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their definitions:

    <p>Zygote = The fertilized egg that enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division Embryo = The developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month Fetus = The developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about newborn abilities is true?

    <p>Newborns prefer their mother's voice to other voices.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does frequent exercise have according to the content?

    <p>Both A and C</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is biofeedback?

    <p>A system that records, amplifies, and feeds back information about physiological responses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The placenta acts as a __________ that transfers nutrients and oxygen from mother to embryo.

    <p>life-link</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Relaxation techniques are less effective than biofeedback.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What lifestyle modifications were taught to Type A heart attack survivors?

    <p>They learned to slow down, relax, smile, laugh, admit mistakes, enjoy life, and renew faith.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does mindfulness meditation focus on?

    <p>Attending to current experiences in a nonjudgmental manner</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What has research shown about the effects of mindfulness practices?

    <p>They can reduce anxiety, depression, improve sleep, relationships, and immune functioning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the faith factor?

    <p>A correlation between faith and longer life</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor does NOT predict self-reported happiness?

    <p>Age</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the feel-good, do-good phenomenon?

    <p>A good mood brightens people’s perceptions of the world and makes them more willing to help others.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Religious involvement does not correlate with health and longevity.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some explanations for the correlation between religiosity and longevity?

    <p>Healthy behaviors, social support, and positive emotions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following has shown effectiveness in improving sleep, reducing depression, and increasing heart and lung fitness?

    <p>Aerobic exercise</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Social support promotes health by calming us, by reducing blood pressure and stress hormones.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Seligman view as a by-product of a pleasant, engaged, and meaningful life?

    <p>Happiness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the feel-good, do-good phenomenon?

    <p>People are more generous when they feel good</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Positive psychology focuses only on alleviating negative states.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is positive psychology?

    <p>The scientific study of human flourishing, focusing on strengths and virtues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the faith factor?

    <p>The finding that religiously active people tend to live longer than those who are not religiously active.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three pillars of positive psychology according to Seligman?

    <p>Positive emotions, positive character, and positive groups.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is NOT associated with increased happiness levels?

    <p>Negative thinking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following accurately represents the relationship between income and happiness?

    <p>Increased income increases happiness for people who don’t have enough money to meet their basic needs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are tips for increasing happiness levels?

    <p>Take charge of your schedule, act happy, seek meaningful work and leisure, buy shared experiences rather than things, exercise, sleep enough, foster friendships, focus beyond the self, and nurture gratitude and spirituality.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which days of the week are typically reported as the happiest?

    <p>Friday and Saturday</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Happiness levels are influenced only by personal factors.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Adam Kramer track in his Facebook study?

    <p>The frequency of positive and negative emotion words in status updates.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is mindfulness meditation?

    <p>A reflective practice of attending to current experiences in a nonjudgmental and accepting manner.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Most people perceive that they will be unhappy after a breakup.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ______ phenomenon refers to how happiness is relative to our own experiences.

    <p>adaptation-level</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the adaptation-level phenomenon?

    <p>Our tendency to adjust our neutral levels based on experience</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following traits is commonly associated with happy people?

    <p>Close relationships</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one suggested way to increase happiness?

    <p>Engage in work and leisure that challenge your skills.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    We overestimate the duration of our __________ and underestimate our resiliency.

    <p>emotions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to research, what is more effective at increasing happiness: buying things or buying experiences?

    <p>Buying experiences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are teratogens?

    <p>Agents that can cause harm to the embryo or fetus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)?

    <p>Physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effects may result from persistent heavy drinking during pregnancy?

    <p>Lower birth weight, birth defects, future behavior problems, and lower intelligence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The first two weeks of prenatal development is the period of the __________.

    <p>zygote</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The period of the __________ lasts from 9 weeks after conception until birth.

    <p>fetus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The time between those two prenatal periods is considered the period of the __________.

    <p>embryo</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What negative effects might alcohol consumed during pregnancy have on a developing fetus?

    <p>Increased risk for birth defects, lower intelligence, and behavioral problems.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is habituation in the context of infants?

    <p>Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    All infants are born with the same reflexes.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Piaget's core idea regarding intellectual progression?

    <p>Our intellectual progression reflects an unceasing struggle to make sense of our experiences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which stage of cognitive development occurs from birth to nearly age 2?

    <p>Sensorimotor Stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Object permanence is the awareness that objects continue to exist even when not perceived.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Piaget's concept of assimilation involve?

    <p>Interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schemas.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does accommodation refer to in Piaget's theory?

    <p>Adapting current understandings to incorporate new information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age do children typically enter the concrete operational stage?

    <p>7 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Egocentrism in preschool children means they can easily take another's point of view.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to refer to a framework offering children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking?

    <p>Scaffold</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ability to understand that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape is known as what?

    <p>Conservation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What milestone do children typically reach around ages 3 to 4½ regarding their understanding of others' beliefs?

    <p>They come to realize that others may hold false beliefs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Piaget's stages of cognitive development are viewed as abrupt transitions.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which stage involves children using intuitive reasoning rather than logical reasoning?

    <p>Preoperational Stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What may happen to Emperor penguin dads during the harsh Antarctic winter?

    <p>They may lose half their body weight over the two months they spend keeping an egg warm.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who is Walter Cranford?

    <p>A financial analyst and a stay-at-home dad.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Erik Erikson, securely attached children approach life with a sense of basic ______.

    <p>trust</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are two forms of insecure attachment?

    <p>Anxious attachment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the impact of childhood neglect or abuse on attachment?

    <p>It can lead to withdrawal, fear, and difficulties in forming healthy relationships.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Nicolae Ceauşescu's policies lead to in Romania?

    <p>Rise in the child-to-caregiver ratio</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do children with sensitive, responsive mothers tend to experience?

    <p>They tend to flourish socially and academically.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the four main parenting styles?

    <p>Authoritarian, Permissive, Negligent, Authoritative</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How would you describe your own temperament?

    <p>Personal response required.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is self-concept?

    <p>An understanding and assessment of who we are.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cultural values do not influence child-raising practices.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes imprinting from attachment?

    <p>Personal response required.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What typically occurs around 8 months in infants?

    <p>Attachment bonds form</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main factor in forming attachments according to studies?

    <p>Comfort and familiarity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is secure attachment associated with?

    <p>Responsive parenting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic outcome of authoritarian parenting?

    <p>Lower self-esteem</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do we call an optimal window of opportunity for proper development?

    <p>A critical period</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which parenting style is most likely to harshly punish a teen without prior discussion?

    <p>Authoritarian</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which behavior indicates secure attachment in a 1-year-old?

    <p>Becoming distressed when parent leaves</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Erikson's research, securely attached children are likely to be developing what?

    <p>A sense of basic trust</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do the Millers' parenting style relate to their twins' behavior at daycare?

    <p>They exhibit secure attachment and an easy temperament.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How would you describe the differences in parenting styles in relation to Keisha and Jasmine's parents?

    <p>Keisha has permissive parents while Jasmine has authoritative parents.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the correct cognitive developmental stage (a–d) to each developmental phenomenon (1–6).

    <p>a. Sensorimotor = 5. Understanding that something is not gone for good when it disappears from sight. b. Preoperational = 2. Enjoying imaginary play. c. Concrete operational = 3. Understanding that physical properties stay the same even when objects change form. d. Formal operational = 1. Thinking about abstract concepts, such as 'freedom.'</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is autism spectrum disorder (ASD)?

    <p>A disorder marked by social deficiencies and repetitive behaviors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Your friend’s baby brother, Matt, loves to play with his pet cat. When he sees a puppy, he points and calls it 'Mi Mi,' which is what he calls his cat. Matt is demonstrating Piaget’s process of:

    <p>Assimilation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If you showed a 2-year-old a model of her bedroom where you’d hidden a toy behind the bed, she would:

    <p>Be unable to find the toy in her room due to a lack of symbolic thinking.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Vygotsky called the space between what a child could learn with and without help the:

    <p>Zone of proximal development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a current belief of researchers that differs from Piaget’s original theories?

    <p>Object permanence develops earlier than Piaget believed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following cognitive abilities is possible only at the formal operational stage?

    <p>Using hypothetical situations as the basis of moral reasoning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A 4-year-old child comes into the room and tells her parent, 'I broke it' without feeling the need to tell her parent what is broken because:

    <p>The child is egocentric.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following would indicate that a child understands conservation?

    <p>She would believe that a clay snake would have the same amount of clay as the clay ball that was used to make it.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What three issues have engaged developmental psychologists?

    <p>Nature and nurture, continuity and stages, stability and change</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the course of prenatal development?

    <p>Conception, zygote, embryo, fetus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do teratogens affect prenatal development?

    <p>They are harmful agents that can cause damage to the developing embryo or fetus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Juliette experiencing due to her mother's alcohol consumption during pregnancy?

    <p>Teratogen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do newborns prefer when it comes to sights and sounds?

    <p>Face-like images</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The decrease in an infant's responsiveness to a repeated visual stimulus is called:

    <p>Habituation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which developmental issue best represents how our genes and environment interact?

    <p>Nature and nurture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the correct prenatal development sequence?

    <p>Zygote, embryo, fetus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon explains the different opinions on developmental growth, whether it occurs gradually or in stages?

    <p>Continuity and stages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is maturation?

    <p>Orderly biological growth that enables changes in behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is infantile amnesia?

    <p>Inability to remember events occurring before age 4</p> Signup and view all the answers

    As the infant's brain develops, the process by which unused neural pathways decay is known as:

    <p>Pruning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did Lev Vygotsky view the role of language in a child's cognitive development?

    <p>Vygotsky believed that as children grow, they increasingly use words to solve problems and think.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is scaffolding in the context of cognitive development?

    <p>Scaffolding is the way in which parents and others provide a framework that offers children temporary support as they move to higher levels of cognitive development.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the zone of proximal development describe?

    <p>The zone of proximal development describes the space between what a child could learn with help and what they can learn without help.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did Vygotsky's theory differ from that of Jean Piaget?

    <p>Piaget thought cognitive development resulted from children's interactions with their physical environment, while Vygotsky believed they learned through social interactions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Give an example of object permanence.

    <p>An example of object permanence is when an infant searches for a toy that is hidden under a blanket.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Provide an example of conservation.

    <p>An example of conservation is a child recognizing that the amount of liquid remains the same despite being poured into a differently shaped container.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of theory of mind?

    <p>An example of theory of mind is a child understanding that other people have thoughts and feelings that may differ from their own.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do parent-infant attachment bonds form?

    <p>From birth, most babies develop an intense attachment to their caregivers, preferring familiar faces and voices and displaying stranger anxiety around 8 months of age.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does 'stranger anxiety' refer to, and when does it typically develop?

    <p>Stranger anxiety refers to the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the Harlow studies reveal about attachment?

    <p>The Harlow studies showed that infant monkeys preferred contact with a comforting cloth mother over a nourishing wire mother, indicating that comfort and emotional security are vital for attachment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of familiarity in attachment?

    <p>Familiarity acts as a safety signal for infants and helps form attachments during a critical period.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does temperament play in attachment style?

    <p>Temperament is a characteristic emotional reactivity that is genetically influenced and affects attachment style.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How has Mary Ainsworth studied attachment differences?

    <p>Mary Ainsworth designed the strange situation experiment to observe mother-infant pairs and their interactions in a controlled environment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is secure attachment?

    <p>Secure attachment is demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and seek comfort in their return.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is insecure attachment?

    <p>Insecure attachment is marked by anxiety or avoidance of trusting relationships, where infants may cling to their mother and show distress when she leaves.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following concepts does Freud's psychiatry support?

    <p>Bad mothering can lead to psychological issues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Parents are solely responsible for their children's failings.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what stage of development is adolescence defined?

    <p>The transition period from childhood to adulthood.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of pruning in neural development?

    <p>It eliminates unused neural pathways.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Whose parenting style is characterized by being very controlling?

    <p>Tiger Mother parenting.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Adolescence starts with the onset of __________.

    <p>puberty</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does early maturation generally have on boys?

    <p>Increased popularity and self-assurance, but higher risk for alcohol use and delinquency.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following influential factors to their impacts on development:

    <p>Parents = Modeling behavior and setting boundaries Peers = Influence on habits and language Environment = Shapes cultural context Genetics = Determines inherent traits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is true about the influence of peers during childhood?

    <p>Children often adopt the culture of their peers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male and female?

    <p>Sex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the socially influenced characteristics by which people define boys, girls, men, and women?

    <p>Gender</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Males and females, on average, have comparable creativity and intelligence.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The average woman has a shorter life span than the average man.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which gender is more likely to commit physical aggression?

    <p>Men</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which gender is more often responsible for relational aggression?

    <p>Women</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for males or for females?

    <p>Gender role</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following gender-related terms to their definitions:

    <p>Sex = Biologically influenced characteristics defining male and female Gender = Socially influenced characteristics defining boys and girls Gender role = Set of expectations for how to behave as male or female Relational aggression = Harmful social behaviors intended to harm relationships</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ______ (Men/Women) are more likely to commit relational aggression, and ______ (men/women) are more likely to commit physical aggression.

    <p>Women; men</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What describes how others expect us to think, feel, and act?

    <p>gender role</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is gender identity?

    <p>our personal sense of being male, female, or some combination of the two</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to social learning theory, how do we acquire our gender identity?

    <p>By observing and imitating others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is gender typing?

    <p>the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do parents influence their children's gender typing?

    <p>By sharing traditional views on gender</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is androgyny?

    <p>displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are gender schemas?

    <p>concepts that help us make sense of our world regarding gender</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Transgender identity is typically aligned with a person's birth-designated sex.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main reason for the societal challenges faced by transgender people?

    <p>They often face social disapproval and discrimination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does gender dysphoria refer to?

    <p>profound distress experienced by transgender individuals due to their gender identity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do gender roles and gender identity differ?

    <p>Gender roles are expectations, while gender identity is a personal sense of self.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Gender _____ are the social expectations that guide men and women’s behavior.

    <p>roles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some commonly noted differences between males and females?

    <p>height, life expectancy, and aggression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is typically more common among males than females?

    <p>Physical aggression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following roles is emphasized by Carol Gilligan's research?

    <p>Making social connections</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is adolescence?

    <p>The transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to social independence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of Kohlberg's stages of moral reasoning is concerned with upholding laws and social rules?

    <p>Conventional morality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Kohlberg, what does preconventional morality focus on?

    <p>Self-interest and avoiding punishment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which developmental change allows for greater impulse control in adolescents?

    <p>Frontal lobe maturation in late adolescence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Kohlberg's postconventional morality reflects a belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three basic levels of moral thinking proposed by Kohlberg?

    <p>Preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Walter Mischel's marshmallow test found that:

    <p>Children who can delay gratification are often successful as adults.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one criticism of Kohlberg's postconventional stage?

    <p>It is culturally limited, appearing mostly among people from societies that prize individualism.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Kohlberg’s level of moral thinking that focuses on self-interest is called ____________ morality.

    <p>preconventional</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The theory that much of our morality is rooted in moral intuitions was proposed by __________.

    <p>Jonathan Haidt</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Nonverbal Communication

    • Nonverbal communication plays a crucial role in how we perceive and understand emotions.
    • Facial expressions, body language, and voice tones provide valuable information about a person's emotional state.
    • A firm handshake indicates an outgoing personality, while a glance conveys intimacy, and darting eyes signal anxiety.
    • Prolonged eye contact can create feelings of attraction and affection, even between strangers.

    Decoding Emotions

    • Our brains are adept at interpreting subtle nonverbal cues, enabling us to detect emotions and gauge social status.
    • We can quickly interpret a person's mood and intentions by observing their facial expressions and body language.
    • A raised eyebrow can convey distress or worry, contracted eyebrows signal fear, and raised cheeks with activated muscles under the eyes indicate a genuine, or Duchenne, smile.
    • A feigned smile typically lasts longer, while genuine smiles are usually briefer and fade more gradually.

    Cultural Differences in Nonverbal Communication

    • Gestures and facial expressions can vary significantly across cultures.
    • The "A-OK" gesture in North America is considered offensive in Brazil, while in some cultures, a raised middle finger symbolizes good luck.
    • While some facial expressions, like smiling and sadness, are universally recognized, others are more culture-specific.
    • People tend to be better at interpreting emotions from their own culture, but the fundamental signs of emotion are generally understood across the globe, even by blind individuals.

    Gender Differences in Nonverbal Communication

    • Women tend to excel at reading others' emotions, demonstrating a stronger ability to decode nonverbal cues than men.
    • This gender difference is evident from infancy and contributes to women's greater emotional literacy and responsiveness.
    • Women are more likely to express complex emotions than men, and they are generally viewed as more emotional.
    • Anger is commonly perceived as a more masculine emotion.

    Empathy and Nonverbal Behavior

    • Women are more likely to describe themselves as empathic, meaning they identify with others' feelings and understand their emotional experiences.
    • Empathy is linked to reading fiction, suggesting that the experience of immersing oneself in characters' lives may enhance empathic abilities.
    • Women are more likely to express empathy through their nonverbal behavior, showing more emotion when observing someone else's emotions.

    The Influence of Facial Expressions

    • Our facial expressions not only reflect our emotions but also amplify and regulate them.
    • The facial feedback effect suggests that making certain facial expressions can induce the corresponding emotion.
    • For example, forcing oneself to smile can improve mood, while making a frowning expression can lead to feelings of anger.

    Culture and Emotional Expression

    • Cultural norms influence how openly emotions are expressed.
    • Individualistic cultures, such as those in Western Europe and North America, tend to display emotions more overtly than collectivistic cultures, such as those in Japan and China.
    • Different cultures have unique display rules that govern emotional expression, affecting how people communicate and interpret nonverbal signals.

    Emotions as a Social-Cultural Phenomenon

    • Emotions are a complex interplay of biology, cognition, and social-cultural factors.
    • Cultural norms and individual experiences shape how we express and perceive emotions, making it important to consider the social context in understanding emotional behavior.

    Nonverbal Communication and Emotion

    • Smiling can make us feel happier and allows us to comprehend happy sentences more quickly. The phenomenon, known as the facial feedback effect, has been replicated by several researchers despite some questioning its reliability.
    • Our facial expressions can trigger emotions and our bodies respond accordingly through physiological changes.
    • Mimicking another person's facial expression can help us feel what they are feeling, and this ability allows us to connect with them emotionally.

    How Stress Affects Us

    • Stress is defined as the process of appraising and responding to threatening or challenging events, known as stressors.
    • Stress arises from our appraisal of events, rather than the events themselves.
    • Short-lived and perceived-as-challenges stressors can have positive effects, mobilizing our immune system and motivating us to overcome obstacles.
    • Extreme or prolonged stress can have harmful effects leading to risky decisions, unhealthy behaviors, and negative health outcomes.
    • We respond to stress through a unified mind-body system involving the sympathetic nervous system and the release of adrenal stress hormones like epinephrine and norepinephrine, leading to the fight-or-flight response.
    • Another stress response system includes the release of glucocorticoid stress hormones, like cortisol.
    • Hans Selye proposed the general adaptation syndrome (GAS) as a three-phase response to stress: alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion.
    • Stressors can be categorized into three main types: catastrophes, significant life changes, and daily hassles.

    Stressors

    • Catastrophes, like earthquakes and terrorist attacks, trigger significant stress-related illnesses.
    • Significant life changes, even positive ones, can cause stress, especially during young adulthood.
    • Daily hassles, like aggravating siblings and deadlines, accumulate and impact our health and well-being.
    • Prejudice and discrimination based on gender identity, sexual orientation, or ethnicity can add stress to our daily lives.

    Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

    • Selye’s GAS describes the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
    • The alarm phase is characterized by the fight-or-flight response, triggered by the sympathetic nervous system.
    • During the resistance phase, the body mobilizes resources to cope with the stressor, including the release of hormones from the adrenal glands.
    • The exhaustion phase occurs with prolonged stress, depleting the body’s reserves and leaving it vulnerable to illness or even death.

    Stress and Vulnerability to Disease

    • Chronic stress weakens the immune system, making individuals more susceptible to illness.
    • Psychoneuroimmunology studies the mind-body interactions that influence the immune system.
    • Stress triggers the release of hormones that suppress the immune system, rendering the body less capable of fighting off infections.

    Stress and Cancer

    • Stress does not directly cause cancer cells.
    • However, stress weakens the immune system, potentially hindering the body's ability to fight off cancer cells.
    • Studies have shown that stress can lead to faster tumor growth and increased cancer risk in animals and humans.

    Stress and Heart Disease

    • Coronary heart disease, the leading cause of death in many developed countries, is linked to stress and personality.
    • Friedman and Rosenman identified Type A individuals as being more reactive, competitive, hard-driving, impatient, and anger-prone, while Type B individuals are more easygoing.
    • Type A personality is associated with increased risk of heart disease, largely due to the negative emotions it fosters, including anger, hostility, and stress.
    • Pessimism and depression are also linked to increased risk of heart disease.
    • Happiness and positive emotional states are associated with better health outcomes.
    • Social support, including strong social networks and a supportive spouse, plays a significant role in health and longevity.

    Heart Disease and Depression

    • People who have had a heart attack are twice as likely to report having experienced depression
    • Individuals with high depression scores are four times more likely to develop further heart problems than those with low scores in the years following a heart attack

    Anger Management

    • Research suggests a strong link between chronic hostility, such as the Type A personality, and heart disease
    • Anger management strategies are critical for health
    • Though expressing anger may be temporarily calming for some, it doesn’t always relieve aggressions
    • The act of expressing anger can actually increase feelings of anger
    • Anger is better managed by waiting, finding healthy distractions, and distancing oneself

    Stress and Inflammation

    • Stress has a negative impact on health, including increased risks of heart disease
    • Chronic stress can cause inflammation in the body
    • Inflammation is a normal immune response to infection, but prolonged inflammation can lead to health problems such as asthma and clogged arteries
    • Chronic stress contributes to depression

    Stress, Health, and Biopsychosocial System

    • Emotional states are linked to physiological responses
    • Stress can impact our health
    • There is an interplay between our mental and physical well-being

    Stress Appraisal

    • Stress is our personal interpretation and response to stressors, or challenging events
    • Events can be perceived as challenging, leading to arousal and focus, or threatening, leading to stress reactions
    • Stressors are divided into three categories:
      • Catastrophes
      • Significant life changes
      • Daily hassles and social stress

    Stress Response System

    • The body’s fight-or-flight response, first identified by Walter Cannon, involves the release of adrenaline
    • The adrenal glands also release glucocorticoid stress hormones, such as cortisol
    • Hans Selye developed the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) which describes a three-phase response to stress: Alarm, Resistance, and Exhaustion
    • Prolonged stress can damage neurons, hastening cell death
    • Women tend to offer social support and care during stressful times (tend-and-befriend)
    • Men are more likely to withdraw socially, turn to alcohol, or become aggressive

    Psychoneuroimmunology

    • The study of the interaction between psychological, neural, and endocrine processes on the immune system
    • Stress weakens the immune system, making it harder to fight off infections.

    Coronary Heart Disease and Type A Personality

    • Coronary heart disease is the number one cause of death in the U.S
    • The Type A personality, characterized by competitiveness, impulsivity, hostility, and anger, has been linked to a higher risk of coronary heart disease
    • Type B personalities, known for being calm and relaxed, have a lower risk of coronary heart disease
    • Type A people tend to secrete more stress hormones

    Stress and Illness

    • Stress may not cause illness directly, but it can increase our vulnerability to disease through physiological and behavioral changes.

    Multiple Choice Questions

    • Gaston's family is dealing with the aftermath of an earthquake. They are most likely in the alarm phase of the general adaptation syndrome.
    • Psychoneuroimmunology is the study of connections between psychological, neural, and endocrine processes affecting health
    • People prone to frequent outbursts are considered to have a Type A personality.
    • People should try to reduce their levels of pessimism to reduce the risk of heart disease.

    Practice FRQs

    • Appraisal can affect Xavier's test performance.
      • If Xavier views the test as a challenge, he may feel invigorated and more focused, leading to improved performance
      • If he sees it as a threat, he may feel distracted and stressed, leading to a decline in performance.
    • Jenna is likely to experience the alarm phase of the GAS when her boyfriend proposes because of the excitement and anticipation of the upcoming event.
    • She may then enter the resistance phase as she navigates the complexities of planning the prom and dealing with the expectations and pressures associated with it.
    • Finally, she may reach exhaustion if the stress of prom preparations becomes overwhelming, leading to emotional distress.

    Health Maintenance

    • Promoting health begins with preventing illness and enhancing wellness.
    • People should not ignore health maintenance and wait for serious illness to occur before seeking medical attention.
    • Health maintenance includes alleviating stress, preventing illness, and promoting well-being.

    Explanatory Style: Optimism Versus Pessimism

    • Pessimists expect things to go badly and attribute their poor performance to lack of ability or situations beyond their control.
    • Optimists expect to have more control, cope better with stressful events, and enjoy better health.
    • Optimists report less fatigue, coughs, and aches, and have stronger immune systems during stressful periods.
    • Optimists respond to stress with smaller increases in blood pressure and recover more quickly from surgeries.
    • Optimists tend to get better grades by responding to setbacks with a hopeful attitude of effort, good study habits, and self-discipline.
    • Realistic positive expectations fuel motivation and success.
    • Optimism and positive emotions relate to well-being and success in many cultures.
    • Those scoring in the top quarter on optimism have a lower mortality rate compared to those scoring in the bottom 25 percent.
    • Happiness and positive feelings shown in early life are associated with a longer lifespan.
    • Optimism may be partly genetic, with one genetic marker being a gene that enhances the social-bonding hormone oxytocin.
    • Even pessimists can learn to become more optimistic and optimistic thinking can improve mood.

    Social Support

    • Feeling supported by intimate friends and family promotes happiness and health.
    • Close relationships predict happiness and health across different cultures and are associated with lower mortality rates.
    • Social isolation predicts a higher risk of death, equivalent to smoking.
    • Laughter and humor can help defuse stress, ease pain, and strengthen immune activity.
    • Supportive marriages are linked to better health than low cholesterol levels and divorce predicts poor health.
    • High-quality marriages have a positive influence on stress hormone levels.
    • Animal support, such as companionable pets, helps buffer stress.
    • Social support is linked to stronger immune function and people with close social ties are less likely to catch colds.
    • Pets offer social support, lower blood pressure, and help relieve depression.
    • Confiding painful feelings to others can help reduce emotional distress and improve health.

    Reducing Stress

    • Developing optimistic thinking, building social support, and having a sense of personal control help reduce stress and improve health.
    • Aerobic exercise, relaxation, meditation, and spiritual communities can help manage stress and increase inner strength.

    Aerobic Exercise

    • Aerobic exercise is sustained, oxygen-consuming exertion that enhances heart and lung fitness.
    • Exercise increases life expectancy, boosts mood, energy levels, and strengthens relationships.
    • Exercise helps fight heart disease by strengthening the heart, increasing blood flow, and lowering blood pressure.
    • Exercise helps clear dietary fat from arteries and promotes overall cardiovascular health.
    • Regular exercise is linked to better cognitive functioning and reduced risk of neurocognitive disorder and Alzheimer’s disease.
    • Exercise counteracts the potential negative effects of inactivity and can weaken the influence of some genetic risk factors.
    • Exercise is consistently linked to higher life satisfaction.
    • Aerobic exercise at least three times a week is associated with better stress management, self-confidence, vigor, and reduced depression and fatigue.
    • Exercise may help prevent or reduce depression and anxiety and has a significant and immediate mood boost effect.
    • Exercise can order up mood-boosting chemicals such as norepinephrine, serotonin, and endorphins.
    • Exercise promotes neurogenesis, the production of new, stress-resistant neurons.

    Relaxation and Meditation

    • Simple methods of relaxation can produce many of the benefits once promised by biofeedback.
    • Relaxation procedures have been shown to alleviate headaches, hypertension, anxiety, and insomnia.
    • Relaxation programs have been used to help Type A heart attack survivors reduce their risk of future attacks.

    Heart Attacks and Lifestyle Changes

    • Modifying Type A lifestyle behaviors, like slowing down and relaxing, can reduce the chance of repeat heart attacks by half.
    • People who learned to modify their lifestyles through specific techniques, including relaxation and mindful practices, experienced a significant reduction in heart attacks.

    Positive Effects of Relaxation

    • Relaxation techniques, such as relaxation exercises and meditation, can reduce stress and improve wound healing.
    • Mindfulness meditation helps people focus on the present moment without judgment and can be beneficial for anxiety and depression.

    Mindfulness Meditation - How It Works

    • Mindfulness meditation strengthens connections among brain regions associated with focusing attention, processing information, and reflection.
    • It activates brain regions associated with reflective awareness and reduces activity in the amygdala, a fear-associated brain region.
    • It reduces brain activation in emotional situations, helping individuals maintain composure during stressful moments.

    Faith Factor and Health

    • Religiously active individuals tend to live longer than those who are not religiously active, a phenomenon known as the "faith factor".
    • This connection is evident across various cultures and demographics, including men and women, highlighting the potential benefits of religious involvement.
    • The faith factor is likely due to a combination of factors, including healthier behaviors, social support, and a sense of meaning and purpose.

    Feel-Good, Do-Good Phenomenon

    • Happy people are more likely to be generous, cooperate, and have positive outlook on life.
    • Performing acts of kindness can boost our moods and create a positive cycle - "feel-good, do-good phenomenon."

    Positive Psychology

    • Positive psychology aims to study human flourishing and identify factors that contribute to well-being and happiness.
    • It has three key pillars: positive well-being (satisfaction with the past, happiness with the present, optimism about the future), positive character (building strengths and virtues), and positive groups, communities, and cultures (creating a positive social environment).

    Happiness and Days of the Week

    • Data analysis of social media posts reveals that Friday and Saturday tend to be the happiest days of the week.

    Human Resilience

    • People can adapt and find happiness even after experiencing significant adversity, demonstrating the resilience of the human spirit.

    The Resilience of Mood

    • We tend to bounce back from negative events, even if they are stressful.
    • Stressful events like arguments, team losses, bad test results typically only negatively impact our mood for one day.
    • More serious events such as the loss of a pet or a group of friends can have longer-lasting effects on our mood.
    • Even major events like breakups or traumatic experiences tend to fade in their impact over time.
    • We are remarkably resilient and adaptable to life's challenges.

    Happiness Is Relative: Two Key Principles

    • Adaptation-Level Phenomenon: We judge our happiness based on our past experiences. Our "neutral level" of happiness adjusts to new circumstances.
    • Relative Deprivation: We compare ourselves to others, and our happiness is influenced by how we perceive ourselves in comparison to those around us.

    Factors that Affect Happiness

    • Genetics: Our genes play a significant role in determining our happiness levels.
    • Personal History and Experience: Our prior experiences and emotional responses shape our happiness set point.
    • Culture: Cultures vary in what they value, influencing happiness levels. Western cultures emphasize individualism and achievement, while communal cultures value social acceptance and harmony.

    Factors that DON'T Predict Happiness

    • Age
    • Gender
    • Physical attractiveness

    What Can We do to Improve Our Happiness?

    • Take Control of Your Time: Set realistic goals and break them down into daily tasks.
    • Act Happy: Smile, talk positively, act as if you have high self-esteem.
    • Engage Your Skills: Find fulfilling work and leisure activities that challenge you but don't overwhelm you.
    • Buy Experiences, Not Things: Spend money on shared, memorable experiences instead of material possessions.
    • Exercise: Regular aerobic activity relieves mild depression and anxiety.
    • Sleep Well: Prioritize getting enough sleep for energy, focus, and a positive mood.
    • Nurture Relationships: Cultivate meaningful conversations and support those you care about.
    • Focus Beyond Self: Engage in acts of kindness and reach out to those in need.
    • Express Gratitude: Keep a gratitude journal and take time to appreciate the positive experiences in your life.
    • Nurture Spirituality: Find meaning and purpose through spiritual practices or faith communities.

    Developmental Psychology

    • Developmental Psychology focuses on understanding physical, cognitive, and social changes across the human lifespan.

    Three Major Issues in Developmental Psychology

    • Nature vs. Nurture: How do genetics (nature) and experiences (nurture) interact in shaping development?
    • Continuity vs. Stages: Some aspects of development are gradual and continuous (escalator), while others have distinct stages (ladder).
    • Stability vs. Change: Some traits stay consistent, while others change as we age.

    Nature and Nurture

    • Genetics play a role in both shared human traits and individual differences.
    • Experiences also shape development, both in the womb and throughout life.
    • Interaction between nature and nurture shapes individuals, not either one alone.

    Continuity and Stages

    • Researchers who focus on experience and learning view development as a gradual, continuous process.
    • Researchers who focus on biological maturation view development as a sequence of genetically defined steps.
    • While developmental stages may not be clearly defined, the stage concept remains useful.
    • Brain growth spurts during childhood and puberty correspond with Piaget's stages of cognitive development.

    Stability and Change

    • While some characteristics like temperament remain stable, we also experience change.
    • Temperament tends to be relatively stable, impacting behavior from childhood through adulthood.
    • We experience both stability and change throughout our lives.

    Stability and Change

    • At age 24, Canadian boys with conduct problems at age 6 are four times more likely to be convicted of a violent crime
    • British 16-year-olds with extraversion are more likely to be happy at age 60
    • People’s personality gradually stabilizes as they age
    • Smiles predict marital stability
    • Social attitudes are less stable over time than temperament

    Conception

    • An egg from the mother and a sperm from the father fuse to form a zygote
    • The sperm reaches the egg by traveling upstream

    Prenatal Development

    • Fewer than half of fertilized eggs survive beyond the first two weeks
    • The zygote attaches to the mother’s uterine wall after 10 days
    • The inner cells of the zygote become the embryo
    • The embryo’s organs start to form and function after six weeks
    • The embryo develops into a fetus at nine weeks
    • The fetus can survive and thrive if born prematurely during the sixth month
    • The fetus is responsive to sound by the sixth month
    • Newborns prefer their mother’s voice to other voices
    • Newborns prefer their mother’s language
    • Newborns’ crying reflects the intonation of their mother’s language
    • Language learning begins in the womb
    • Fetuses can learn to adapt to sounds, as evidenced by a honking device placed on the mother’s abdomen
    • The placenta screens out harmful substances from the mother’s bloodstream
    • Teratogens can damage an embryo or fetus
    • Alcohol consumed during pregnancy can reduce activity in the central nervous systems of the mother and fetus
    • Alcohol use during pregnancy can cause the offspring to have a liking for alcohol
    • Even light or occasional drinking during pregnancy can affect the fetal brain
    • Heavy drinking during pregnancy can lead to low birth weight, birth defects, behavior problems, and low intelligence
    • Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) is the most serious fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
    • Alcohol has an epigenetic effect on a fetus that can affect gene expression
    • Smoking during pregnancy can leave epigenetic scars that make infants more vulnerable to stress
    • Extreme stress during pregnancy may produce an earlier delivery
    • Prenatal stress exposure can increase the risk of various health problems

    The Competent Newborn

    • Newborns have automatic reflex responses that aid survival
    • Newborns root for a nipple when something touches their cheek and suck when they find one
    • Babies can communicate through gazing, sucking, and turning their heads
    • Researchers can study what babies learn and remember by exploiting habituation
    • Newborns prefer sights and sounds that facilitate social responsiveness
    • Newborns gaze longer at drawings of faces
    • Newborns’ brains are primed to connect socially
    • Within days after birth, infants’ brains are imprinted with their mother’s body's smell
    • Infant's preference for their mother’s smell lasts and can influence their preferences in the future

    Cognitive Development in Children

    • Developmental psychologist Jean Piaget studied the cognitive development of children, focusing on how children's minds develop through a series of stages.
    • Piaget believed that a child's mind does not develop as a miniature version of an adult's mind.
    • He suggested that children reason differently than adults, often in seemingly illogical ways.
    • Piaget believed that children's intellectual progression is driven by their desire to understand and make sense of their experiences.
    • According to Piaget, the brain creates schemas - concepts or mental molds that organize information.
    • He proposed assimilation, where new experiences are interpreted using existing schemas, and accommodation, where schemas are modified to incorporate new information.

    Piaget's Theory: Key Concepts

    • Existing schemas are used to assimilate new experiences.
    • Schemas are adjusted, or accommodated, to incorporate new experiences.

    Current Thinking on Piaget's Theory

    • Piaget believed children construct their understanding of the world through interaction with it.

    Cognitive Development

    • Cognitive development is characterized by spurts of change followed by greater stability as individuals move through cognitive plateaus.
    • Piaget's theory of cognitive development posits four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

    Sensorimotor Stage

    • Birth to nearly 2 years: Infants learn through sensory experiences and motor actions.
    • Object permanence: The understanding that objects continue to exist even when not perceived develops around 8 months.
    • Research suggests that object permanence develops gradually and infants are more cognitively competent than Piaget initially proposed.
    • Baby physics: Infants show surprise at impossible events, such as a car passing through a solid object, indicating an early understanding of physical laws.
    • Baby math: Infants can distinguish between different quantities showing an early understanding of number concepts.

    Preoperational Stage

    • About 2 to 6 or 7 years: Children learn to represent objects and ideas using words and images, but lack the capacity for logical reasoning.
    • Conservation: The understanding that the quantity of an object remains the same even after its shape is altered develops later in this stage.
    • Pretend play: Symbolic thinking emerges earlier than Piaget initially believed, as evidenced by children's ability to use a model as a representative of a real room.
    • Egocentrism: Preschoolers have difficulty taking another’s perspective, often assuming that others see and think like them.
    • Theory of mind: As children develop, they begin to understand the mental states of others, including their thoughts, feelings, and intentions, showing a shift away from egocentrism.

    Concrete Operational Stage

    • About 7 to 11 years: Children develop logical thinking about concrete events and can perform mental operations related to conservation and mathematical transformations.

    Formal Operational Stage

    • About 12 years and beyond: Individuals gain the capacity for abstract thinking, including hypothetical reasoning and logical deductions.
    • Formal logical thinking begins earlier than Piaget initially proposed, as evidenced by children's ability to solve simple logical problems.

    Vygotsky's Socio-Cultural Theory

    • Emphasis on social interaction: Vygotsky believed that children learn through interactions with their social environment, particularly through language and guidance from others.
    • Scaffolding: Parents and teachers provide temporary support that helps children reach higher levels of thinking.
    • Zone of proximal development: The zone between what a child can do independently and what they can do with assistance represents the optimal learning environment.
    • Language: Vygotsky highlighted the importance of language in cognitive development, arguing that it provides the building blocks for thinking and self-regulation.

    Implications for Parents and Teachers

    • Understanding child development: It is crucial to recognize that young children lack adult logic and perspective-taking abilities.
    • Building on existing knowledge: Engage children in concrete demonstrations and activities that encourage them to think for themselves.
    • Active learning: Approach teaching as a collaborative process that builds on children's existing knowledge and curiosity.

    Childhood's Special Way Of Seeing, Thinking, And Feeling

    • Children's cognitive immaturity is adaptive because it keeps them close to protective adults and allows for sufficient learning and socialization.
    • Jean-Jacques Rousseau said, "Childhood has its own way of seeing, thinking, and feeling, and there is nothing more foolish than the attempt to put ours in its place."

    Autism Spectrum Disorder

    • Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is marked by social deficiencies and repetitive behaviors.
    • In the U.S., 1 in 68 children are diagnosed with ASD by age 8.
    • The reported rates of ASD vary across different locations.
    • There's an increase in ASD diagnoses coupled with a decrease in "cognitive disability" or "learning disability" diagnoses, suggesting a possible relabeling of childhood disorders.
    • ASD is characterized by deficient social communication and difficulty understanding others' states of mind.
    • The underlying source of ASD's symptoms may be poor communication between brain regions responsible for perspective taking.
    • Those with ASD have an impaired theory of mind, making it difficult for them to infer and remember others' thoughts and feelings.
    • Children with ASD experience bullying at a higher rate than other children.
    • ASD has varying levels of severity, with some individuals functioning at high levels and others struggling to use language.
    • Genetic influences, abnormal brain development, and the prenatal environment contribute to the development of ASD.
    • Childhood vaccinations do not contribute to ASD.

    Attachment Bonds

    • Infants develop an intense attachment to their caregivers.
    • By around 8 months, infants develop stranger anxiety due to their limited schemas for familiar faces.
    • Attachment is an emotional tie, characterized by seeking closeness to a caregiver and showing distress upon separation.
    • The Harlows' monkey studies demonstrated that attachment is not solely based on nourishment.
    • Infants become attached to those who provide comfort and familiarity, such as warmth, rocking, feeding, and patting.
    • Touch is a crucial aspect of parent-infant emotional communication.
    • As we mature, our secure base and safe haven shift from parents to peers and partners.

    Attachment

    • Attachment is an emotional bond that keeps infants close to their caregivers
    • Early childhood bonds with caregivers provide a secure base for exploration
    • Attachment is influenced by "familiarity", which develops during a critical period where specific stimuli or experiences are vital for development
    • Imprinting is a process where certain animals form strong attachments during early life, commonly seen in goslings, ducklings, and chicks
    • Konrad Lorenz investigated imprinting, discovering young ducklings would imprint on humans if they were the first moving creature they observed
    • Imprinting is irreversible and can be used to guide animals during migration
    • Children do not imprint but develop attachments during a less defined "sensitive period"
    • Familiarity breeds fondness and serves as a safety signal in humans

    Attachment Differences: Temperament and Parenting

    • Mary Ainsworth designed the "strange situation" experiment to analyze attachment differences in infants
    • Around 60% of infants display "secure attachment"
    • Securely attached infants explore their surroundings and become distressed when their caregiver leaves, but seek comfort in the caregiver's return
    • Infants exhibiting "insecure attachment" show either anxiety or avoidance of trusting relationships
    • Insecurely attached infants may cling to their mothers or seem indifferent to their departure and return
    • Sensitive and responsive mothers typically have infants with secure attachment while insensitive mothers often have infants with insecure attachment
    • The Harlows' monkey studies demonstrated the importance of a caring mother figure, showcasing the detrimental effects of social deprivation on infant development
    • Temperament, a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity, also influences attachment styles
    • Identical twins often share similar temperaments, highlighting the genetic influence on this trait
    • Temperament differences persist throughout life, with highly reactive newborns typically becoming more reactive children and adults
    • Anxious, inhibited infants tend to exhibit high and variable heart rates and a reactive nervous system, becoming more physiologically aroused when exposed to novel or unfamiliar environments
    • Nature and Nurture play a role in attachment, where parenting styles can be influenced by a child's temperament
    • Intervention programs can increase parental sensitivity and, to a lesser extent, infant attachment security

    Deprivation of Attachment

    • Children deprived of healthy attachments often display signs of withdrawal, fright, and speechlessness
    • Romanian orphans deprived of healthy attachments showed reduced brain development, lower intelligence scores, abnormal stress responses, and increased ADHD rates
    • Children raised in loving families tend to achieve better intelligence scores compared to those raised in institutions
    • Most children who experience adversity, including those who survived the Holocaust or experienced child abuse, exhibit resilience and often develop into well-adjusted adults
    • However, children who experience enduring abuse may struggle to bounce back and might develop similar behaviors in their own relationships with others
    • Studies demonstrate that abused animals often follow an "abuse-breeds-abuse" pattern, where they are more likely to exhibit aggressive behaviors towards others
    • Humans, too, can perpetuate similar patterns where neglected or abused children are more likely to become unloving and abusive parents
    • The trauma of abuse can alter brain development, leading to heightened reactivity in threat detection areas and stronger startle responses

    Early Stress and its Impact

    • Early stress can permanently heighten reactions to stress later in life and increase chances of stress-related illnesses.
    • Child abuse can leave epigenetic marks, changing gene expression, which can affect biological responses to stress.
    • Victims of prolonged physical abuse, sexual abuse, bullying, or wartime atrocities are at increased risk for various problems, including health conditions, psychological disorders, substance abuse, and criminal behavior.
    • 84% of adults who experienced physical abuse at least "fairly often" before age 18 had at least one psychiatric disorder. The more abuse experienced, the higher the prevalence of anxiety, depression, substance use disorder, and attempted suicide.
    • Individuals with a gene variant that increases stress hormone production are at a higher risk for depression following abuse.
    • This highlights the interaction between genetics and environmental factors in shaping behavior and emotion.

    Self-Concept Development

    • Children develop a self-concept, an understanding and evaluation of themselves, by around age 12.
    • Before that, children demonstrate self-awareness through their interactions with mirrors.
    • Around 18 months, infants touch their own noses when they see a mark on their reflection in the mirror.
    • Children's self-concepts evolve from simple descriptions to more detailed ones, considering traits, group memberships, and comparisons with peers.
    • Children form a stable self-image by age 8 to 10.
    • A positive self-concept is associated with confidence, independence, optimism, assertiveness, and sociability.

    Parenting Styles

    • Parenting styles are categorized by responsiveness and demandingness.
    • Authoritarian parents are coercive, imposing rules and expecting obedience without explanation.
    • Permissive parents are unrestraining, with few demands, limits, or punishment.
    • Negligent parents are uninvolved, neither demanding nor responsive.
    • Authoritative parents are confrontational, setting rules while also being responsive and encouraging discussion and exceptions.
    • Different parenting styles have varying outcomes for children.
    • Some parents, often influenced by cultural values, prioritize obedience and respect, while others value independence, self-reliance, and individuality.

    Cultural Variations in Child Rearing

    • Child-rearing practices differ across cultures, reflecting both individual and societal values.
    • Western cultures often emphasize independence and individual expression.
    • Other cultures, like those in Asia and Africa, prioritize emotional closeness and a strong sense of family.
    • This includes more physical proximity and shared responsibility for care, which differs from Western practices like solo bedrooms and daycare.
    • Despite these variations, children have thrived under various child-rearing systems, highlighting that there is no single right way to raise a child across all cultures.

    Sex vs Gender

    • Sex is biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male and female
    • Gender is socially influenced characteristics by which people define boy, girl, man, and woman
    • Biology defines sex and mind defines gender
    • Mind's understanding of gender is influenced by biology and experiences

    Similarities and Differences Between Males and Females

    • Most biological characteristics are unisex (same for both males and females)
    • Similarities in biology helped human ancestors face similar challenges
    • Both sexes share similar abilities for survival, reproduction, and avoiding predators
    • Males and females feel the same emotions and longings, similar intelligence and creativity on average
    • Cultures vary in gender roles and expectations, which influences social behaviour
    • Average girl enters puberty about a year earlier than average boy
    • Women's life span is 5 years longer
    • Men have 4 times the risk of suicide and alcohol use disorder
    • Women have twice the risk of depression and anxiety

    Aggression

    • Aggression is any physical or verbal behaviour intended to harm someone
    • Men generally admit to more aggression, especially extreme physical violence
    • Men are more likely to be violent in romantic relationships
    • Men commit more violent crime
    • Women are more likely to engage in relational aggression, which aims to harm social standing

    Social Power

    • People perceived men as more confident and independent
    • People perceive men as more likely to take the leadership role

    Social Connectedness

    • Men and women have a need to belong, but may satisfy this need in different ways
    • Men tend to form large play groups with more activity and competition, lacking deeper conversation
    • Men are less likely to admit when they don't know the answer, a phenomenon called "male answer syndrome"
    • Women tend to be more interdependent
    • Women tend to play in smaller groups and focus on social relationships
    • Women spend more time with friends and less time alone
    • Women make more phone calls and maintain calls longer than men
    • Women are more likely to turn to others for support when stressed, tending and befriending
    • Men are less religious and pray less
    • Men dominate the ranks of professional skeptics
    • Women are more likely to author books on spirituality

    Gender Roles

    • Cultural expectations shape behaviour based on gender
    • Gender roles are the social expectations about how men and women should act
    • Gender roles have evolved significantly throughout history
    • Modern economy has produced jobs favouring social intelligence and communication, shifting traditional gender roles

    Gender Identity

    • Social learning theory suggests children acquire their identity by observing and imitating others, being rewarded or punished for certain behaviours
    • Gender typing is the acquisition of traditional masculine or feminine roles
    • Parents influence gender typing by transmitting cultural views
    • Children may drift towards what feels right to them, forming "boy worlds" and "girl worlds"

    Experience and Brain Development

    • Early experiences shape brain development by strengthening certain neural pathways and weakening others through disuse.
    • A stimulating environment increases brain weight and the number of synapses, as demonstrated by the experiments with rats raised in enriched vs. impoverished environments.
    • Early stimulation is crucial for brain development, as demonstrated by the language acquisition and visual perception examples, illustrating the “use it or lose it” principle.
    • The brain's plasticity allows for ongoing neural changes and reorganization in response to new experiences throughout life, whether learning new skills or exploring unfamiliar environments.

    How Much Credit or Blame Do Parents Deserve?

    • While parents play a role in shaping their children's development, shared environmental influences account for less than 10 percent of personality differences.
    • Parental influence is most significant at the extremes: abusive parents leading to abusive children, and deeply loved and firmly handled children becoming self-confident and socially competent.
    • Family environment plays a crucial role in academic and vocational success, especially observed in children of refugees who fled war-torn areas, indicating the importance of close-knit and supportive families.
    • Parenting styles vary across cultures, with Asian-American mothers often pushing children to succeed while fostering strong relationships, while European-Americans may perceive this as pushy and detrimental to children's motivation.

    Peer Influence

    • Peers exert a strong influence on children and adolescents, especially regarding social conformity and behavior.
    • Children adapt their food preferences and language accents to fit in with their peers, often overriding parental influence.
    • Peer influence on behaviors like smoking may reflect a selection effect, where individuals choose friends with similar attitudes and interests.

    Peer Influence

    • Peer influence is a powerful force in shaping adolescent behavior, especially when it comes to habits like smoking.
    • Peers can influence a child’s tastes, styles, accents, slang, and substance use.

    Brain Development

    • The human brain continues to develop throughout adolescence, with a significant period of pruning of unused neural connections.
    • The frontal lobe, responsible for judgment, impulse control, and long-term planning, continues to mature until approximately age 25.
    • Adolescents often exhibit impulsivity and risky behaviors due to the hormonal surge of puberty and the faster development of the limbic system compared to the frontal lobe.
    • This immaturity in the frontal lobe is a crucial factor considered in legal cases concerning adolescents, including the Supreme Court’s decisions regarding the death penalty and life without parole for juveniles.

    Cognitive Development

    • Adolescence marks the transition to Piaget’s formal operational stage, characterized by abstract reasoning, hypothetical thinking, and the ability to consider complex moral dilemmas.
    • During this stage, adolescents may engage in self-focused reasoning and experience what Elkind termed "egocentrism," believing their experiences are unique and misunderstood by adults.

    Moral Development

    • Lawrence Kohlberg proposed three levels of moral reasoning: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.
    • Preconventional morality focuses on self-interest and avoiding punishment, while conventional morality emphasizes adherence to rules and social order.
    • Postconventional morality is characterized by abstract moral principles and a belief in basic human rights.
    • The intuitionist view of morality, proposed by Jonathan Haidt, suggests that many moral judgments are based on quick, gut reactions and emotional responses.

    Punishing Wrongdoing

    • Driven by emotional response over reason
    • Moral outrage and pleasure of revenge contribute

    Moral Reasoning

    • Moral reasoning is like a press secretary that convinces us and others of the logic of our intuitive feelings

    Moral Dilemmas

    • Hurricane Harvey example shows residents had different levels of moral thinking
    • Study on moral paradoxes: Trolley dilemma vs. pushing a stranger into the path of the trolley
    • Brain imaging reveals emotional areas are activated in body-pushing dilemma
    • Moral judgments demonstrate dual processing of the mind

    Moral Action

    • Morality involves doing the right thing
    • Social influences play a role in moral action
    • Example: Nazi Concentration Camp guards were ordinary people corrupted by evil situation
    • Character education programs aim to develop moral thinking, feeling, and action

    Delaying Gratification

    • Experiment by Walter Mischel (Marshmallow Test): Children who delayed gratification had greater success later in life
    • Capacity to delay gratification is crucial for future academic, vocational, and social success

    Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning

    • Preconventional Morality: Focus on self-interest
    • Conventional Morality: Focus on upholding laws and social rules
    • Postconventional Morality: Focus on self-defined ethical principles

    Criticism of Kohlberg's Theory

    • Critics argue that the postconventional stage represents morality from an individualistic perspective

    Adolescent Development

    • Adolescence is the period of transition from childhood to adulthood
    • Physical changes include puberty and social independence
    • Brain development continues throughout adolescence, with the frontal lobes maturing and myelination increasing, leading to improved judgment, impulse control, and long-term planning

    Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

    • Adolescents develop capacity for formal operations
    • This development forms the basis for moral judgment

    Moral Intuition vs. Moral Reasoning

    • Moral intuition: Focuses on how people feel about moral situations
    • Moral Reasoning: Focuses on how people think about moral situations

    Moral Development in Adolescence

    • Early maturation in boys can have mixed effects
    • Early maturation in girls can be challenging

    Moral Action in Adolescence

    • Service-learning programs have positive impacts on teens, increasing their sense of competence, desire to serve, and decreasing absenteeism and violent behavior.

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    Explore the intricate relationship between stress and health in this informative quiz. Delve into concepts like the sympathetic nervous system, Hans Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome, and psychoneuroimmunology. Test your understanding of how stress impacts our physiological and immune functions, as well as psychological well-being.

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