Psychology Chapter on Sensation and Perception

Sensation vs. Perception

• Sensation is the detection of stimuli (light, sound, touch).
• Perception is the organization and interpretation of sensory information.
• Example: Light on the retina is interpreted by the brain as an image.

Sensory Receptors & Transduction

• Sensory receptors are specialized neurons that detect stimuli.
• Sensory transduction converts stimuli into neural signals.
• Example: Light waves are transduced into visual images.

The Visual System

• Light is electromagnetic radiation (380 nm - 760 nm visible).
• Human eye parts include the cornea, iris, lens, retina, and optic nerve.
• The cornea is a transparent layer for light entry.
• The iris controls pupil size.
• The lens focuses light onto the retina.
• The retina contains photoreceptors (rods and cones).
• Rods are for low-light vision.
• Cones provide detail and color vision, best in daylight.
• Photoreceptors transmit signals to the brain via the optic nerve.

Depth Perception

• Binocular depth cues include retinal disparity and convergence.
• Monocular depth cues include relative size, linear perspective, and other cues.
• Example of a depth cue: Ponzo illusion.

Gestalt Principles of Perception

• Gestalt principles describe how we perceive whole objects.
• Key principles include closure, similarity, proximity, and good continuation.
• These principles allow us to perceive objects as complete, even when parts are missing.

Perceptual Constancies

• Size constancy is the perception of objects as the same size despite changes in distance.
• Shape constancy is the perception of objects as the same shape despite changes in viewing angle.
• Color constancy is the perception of objects as the same color despite changes in lighting.

The Auditory System

• Sound waves are created by vibrating objects.
• Frequency determines pitch, and amplitude determines loudness.
• The ear has three parts: outer ear (pinna), middle ear (tympanic membrane and ossicles), and inner ear (cochlea).
• The cochlea transduces sound into neural signals.

Somatosensory System

• Senses touch, pressure, vibration, pain, and temperature.
• Receptors include pressure-sensitive, thermoreceptors, and nociceptors.
• The somatosensory cortex maps sensory input to different body parts.

Learning vs. Memory

• Learning involves lasting behavioral changes from experience.
• Memory involves encoding, storing, and retrieving information.
• Memory types include explicit (episodic and semantic) and implicit (procedural and associative).

Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)

• Neutral stimulus becomes associated with unconditioned stimulus.
• Unconditioned stimulus elicits an unconditioned response.
• Conditioned stimulus elicits a conditioned response after association.

Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)

• Learning through rewards and punishments.
• Reinforcement increases behavior (positive or negative).
• Punishment decreases behavior (positive or negative).

Memory Types

• Explicit memory involves conscious recollection of personal experiences and facts.
• Implicit memory includes skills and conditioned responses.

Forgetting & Interference

• Forgetting curve shows rapid initial forgetting, followed by slower forgetting over time.
• Interference can occur when old memories disrupt new learning (proactive) or new memories disrupt retrieval of old memories (retroactive).

Additional Notes

• Real-world classical conditioning explains preferences and aversions.
• Cognitive learning includes concepts like latent learning (Tolman).
• Memory processes include encoding, storage, and retrieval.
• Short-term memory is temporary and limited, while long-term memory is stable and relatively permanent.

The Case of H.M.

• The hippocampus is crucial for explicit memories (not implicit).
• Individuals with hippocampal damage may retain short-term memory but struggle to form new memories.

Eyewitness Memory

• Eyewitness testimony can be unreliable due to misinformation.
• Loftus's research demonstrates that memories can be altered by misleading information.

Computational Theory of Mind

• The brain is an example of an information-processing device.
• Thinking and mental imagery involve processing information.
• Examples of thinking processes and representation mechanisms.

Problem-Solving Methods

• Heuristics are mental shortcuts, often fast but not always accurate.
• Algorithms are step-by-step procedures that are usually reliable but can be slow.
• Insight involves sudden realizations, like an "aha!" moment.

Dual Systems of Thinking (Kahneman)

• System 1 is fast and automatic, using quick judgments.
• System 2 is slower and more deliberate, requiring focus.

Heuristics (Detail)

• Availability heuristic relies on easily recalled memories to judge commonality.
• Representativeness heuristic categorizes based on prototypes.
• Confirmation bias focuses on information that confirms existing beliefs, ignoring contradictions.

Intelligence

• General intelligence (g) underlies all cognitive abilities.
• IQ measures mental age relative to chronological age.
• Various intelligence tests exist, including Binet's and Stanford-Binet.

Environmental Influence on IQ

• Twin studies explore the contribution of genetics and environment to intelligence.

Emotional Intelligence (EQ)

• Emotional intelligence involves recognizing and understanding emotions in oneself and others.

Grit

• Grit is the perseverance and passion for long-term goals.
• Grit can be a predictor of success, even with lower IQ.

Animal Intelligence

• Animal intelligence demonstrates concept formation and problem-solving abilities through examples of tool use or understanding.

Explore the fundamental concepts of sensation and perception in psychology. This quiz covers sensory receptors, transduction processes, and the human visual system, including eye anatomy and depth perception. Test your understanding of how we interpret sensory information and the mechanisms behind our visual experiences.