Psychology Chapter on Prototypes and Memory

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Questions and Answers

What does a high family resemblance indicate about a category member?

  • The member is not a good example of the category.
  • The member is the most common example of the category.
  • The member has few attributes in common with other members of the category.
  • The member has many attributes in common with other members of the category. (correct)

Which of the following items was NOT used in the study by Rosch & Mervis (1975) to demonstrate family resemblance?

  • Chair
  • Telephone
  • Mirror
  • Bed (correct)

A concept's prototypicality affects the speed at which individuals can verify statements about the concept. What does this mean?

  • Prototypicality doesn't affect the speed of verification.
  • People are equally fast at verifying statements about both prototypical and non-prototypical members.
  • People can verify statements about non-prototypical members faster than prototypical members.
  • People can verify statements about prototypical members faster than non-prototypical members. (correct)

Which of the following BEST describes the relationship between a prototypical object and its category?

<p>A prototypical object is a highly representative example of its category. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of Rosch & Mervis's study, what does the term 'family resemblance' refer to?

<p>The shared characteristics between members of a category. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the phenomenon called that allows us to remember events from adolescence and young adulthood better than other periods in our lives?

<p>Reminiscence Bump (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the constructive approach to memory explain errors in remembering events?

<p>The brain reconstructs memories based on actual events and additional information, which can lead to errors. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a factor that can contribute to errors in eyewitness testimony?

<p>Age of the witness (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a way that categories are organized?

<p>Associative Approach (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do personal schemas and scripts affect the formation of memories?

<p>They can influence our perception of events and create false memories. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary benefit of having an imperfect memory, according to the provided content?

<p>It helps us focus on the most relevant information. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is it difficult to determine the truthfulness of recovered memories?

<p>All of the above. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a flashbulb memory?

<p>Remembering where you were during the 9/11 attacks. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of concepts and categories in our cognitive processes?

<p>To help us understand and interpret the world around us. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of semantic networks?

<p>They are based on the frequency of association between concepts. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key idea behind the theory of Spreading Activation in the context of Collin's & Quillian's model?

<p>It suggests that the retrieval of information from memory is based on the activation of connected concepts. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a testable prediction made by Colin's & Quillian's model regarding concept recall?

<p>The time taken to recall information is influenced by the distance between related concepts in memory. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key limitation of the model proposed by Collin's & Quillian's that the content discusses?

<p>It oversimplifies the complex processes involved in memory storage and retrieval. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main point made by the sentence: “Testing Collin’s & Quillian’s Model Results: Greater distances are associated with longer reaction times…”?

<p>The model's prediction that distance between concepts affects reaction times is supported by experimental findings. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main question raised by the sentence: "How are categories stored in the brain?"

<p>Whether categories are represented in the brain as distinct units or distributed across a network of neurons. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of the "pegword" technique?

<p>To associate a visual image with each number, aiding memorization. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the provided example, how is the number "one" paired with the object "bun"?

<p>They create a clear sensory experience by imagining biting into a bun. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the specific area in the brain that is activated when a person is engaged in mental imagery?

<p>Occipital lobe, specifically area V1 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why are abstract nouns more difficult to create images for compared to concrete nouns?

<p>Abstract nouns have no physical forms, making it difficult to visualize them. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of brain activity is measured by ERP (Event-Related Potential) in the context of the provided content?

<p>Electrical signals generated by the brain in response to stimuli (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the case of patient M.G.S. support the idea that imagery neurons are category-specific?

<p>Patient M.G.S. exhibited difficulty recognizing specific categories of objects after surgery. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary takeaway from the research on imagery and the brain, as presented in the content?

<p>Mental imagery activates brain areas similar to those used in real-world perception. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the underlying principle behind the pegword technique for memorization?

<p>Association and linking of information through imagery enhances recall. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Rosch's approach, which level of categorization is considered 'special' and is seen as the most informative?

<p>Basic (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of the 'naming things' demonstration in Rosch's approach?

<p>To assess the impact of knowledge on the categorization process (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the 'naming things' demonstration, why is 'guitar' considered the basic level category?

<p>It provides the optimal balance between generality and specificity (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do the Maya Itza in Guatemala demonstrate the influence of culture on categorization?

<p>They use a more specific level of categorization due to their intimate connection with nature. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary finding of Tanaka and Taylor's (1981) expert experiment?

<p>Experts utilize more subordinate categories compared to non-experts in naming birds. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a factor that influences how categories are organized?

<p>Personal preferences (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Rosch's theory, why is using 'tree' rather than 'oak tree' when referring to a specific oak tree problematic?

<p>It loses essential information about the specific tree. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the example of the Maya Itza in Guatemala contribute to the understanding of categorization?

<p>It demonstrates that culture can significantly influence the level of detail in categorization. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Imagine a horse. After damage to the visual cortex, how far away in your mental image can you get before the horse starts to fill up the visual field?

<p>35 feet (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the technique used to disrupt a brain area?

<p>Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the visual cortex area which plays a key role in imagery?

<p>V1 (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a form of evidence for spatial representation in mental imagery?

<p>Dual Coding theory (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between the amount of rotation of a mental image and the reaction time to identify it?

<p>Directly proportional (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the theory that suggests there are two distinct forms of encoding in memory?

<p>Dual Coding Theory (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between the distance between two objects in a mental image and the time it takes to scan between them?

<p>Directly proportional (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the technique used to determine whether a specific brain area is involved in a certain behavior?

<p>Disrupting the activity of the brain area and observing the effect on behavior (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can imagery be used to improve memory?

<p>All of the above (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a key feature of mental imagery?

<p>It is always accompanied by physical sensations (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the relationship between perception and imagery, according to the content provided?

<p>Perception and imagery share common neural mechanisms. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Rating Scale

A system to evaluate category membership, from 1 to 7.

Prototypicality

The degree to which an object is considered a typical member of a category.

Family Resemblance

The extent to which items in a category share attributes with each other.

Rapid Verification

Faster reactions when identifying prototypical objects vs non-prototypical ones.

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Rosch & Mervis Study

Experiment showing common attributes of furniture items to assess prototypicality.

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Hierarchical Categorization

A method of organizing concepts where levels signify different scopes of information.

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Basic Level Category

The level in a hierarchy where categories have the most information and are commonly used.

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Superordinate Level

The broader category that encompasses more specific subcategories.

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Subordinate Level

A more specific level in the hierarchy, containing detailed classifications.

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Knowledge Effects on Categorization

How a person's expertise influences the level of category they use.

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Cultural Effects on Categorization

How culture influences the way individuals categorize objects.

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Expert vs. Nonexpert Categorization

Experts tend to use more specific (subordinate) categories than nonexperts.

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J.W. Tanaka and Taylor Experiment

A study showing that experts use subordinate categories more than nonexperts when naming objects.

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Autobiographical memories

A form of episodic memory for dated events in one's life.

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Constructive memory

Memory formed by combining actual events with surrounding information.

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Reminiscence Bump

Enhanced memory for events in adolescence and young adulthood.

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Flashbulb memories

Vivid memories of shocking and emotionally charged events.

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Source misattribution

Error in recalling the source of a memory.

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Eyewitness testimony errors

Mistakes made in recalling events due to emotions or suggestions.

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False memories

Memories that individuals believe to be true but are distorted or fabricated.

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Definitional Approach

Categorization based on defining features of concepts.

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Prototype approach

Categorization based on the most typical example of a concept.

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Exemplar approach

Categorization by comparing new instances with specific examples encountered.

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Collin's & Quillian's Model

A cognitive model predicting how concepts are recalled based on their interconnectedness in memory.

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Distance in Concept Recall

The time to recall information increases with the distance between concepts in the network.

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Spreading Activation

A process where activation spreads to related concepts within a network when one concept is triggered.

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Testing Predictions

Verifying the model by checking if distances correlate with reaction times for concept verification.

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Concept Categories

How different categories or concepts are structured and stored in the brain.

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Pegwords

Mnemonic devices using rhiming words to aid memory.

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Imagery in Memory

The use of mental images to improve recall and understanding.

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ERP (Event Related Potential)

Brain response measured when participants process stimuli.

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Visual Receiving Area (V1)

Brain area responsible for processing visual information.

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Neuropsychological Case Studies

Research involving patients with brain injuries to understand functions.

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Category-Specific Neurons

Neurons that respond to specific categories of objects or concepts.

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Concrete vs Abstract Nouns

Concrete nouns evoke clear images; abstract nouns do not.

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Brain Imaging Studies

Techniques like fMRI used to visualize brain activity.

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Imagery Neurons

Neurons that respond specifically to imagined images, like a baseball or horse.

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Area V1

The part of the visual cortex crucial for visual perception and imagery.

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Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

Technique to disrupt brain function to study mental tasks.

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Mentally Imagined Object Distance

The perceived distance of an imagined object like a horse changes with visual cortex removal.

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Mental Imagery

Mental representation of objects or scenarios that are not physically present.

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Spatial Representation

The idea that mental images are arranged in space, like a map.

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Propositional Representation

The view that mental imagery relies on descriptive language rather than spatial layout.

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Image Scanning

The time to scan between objects in a mental image depends on their distance.

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Mental Rotation

The time taken to rotate a mental image correlates with the angle of rotation.

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Dual Coding Theory

The theory proposing two forms of memory encoding: verbal and nonverbal.

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Study Notes

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

  • An extensive archive of past events and learned knowledge.
  • Spans considerable time, from recent events to distant memories.
  • Includes personal experiences and general knowledge.

Different Types of LTM

  • Declarative Memory (Explicit): Conscious recollections of past experiences or facts.

    • Episodic Memory: Personal memories of specific events and the time they occurred.
    • Semantic Memory: General knowledge about the world, including facts, concepts, and meanings.

  • Implicit Memory (Implicit/Non-declarative): Memories that influence behavior without conscious awareness.

    • Priming: Past experiences affect current responses without conscious recollection.
    • Procedural Memory: Memory for carrying out learned skills and procedures, often unconscious.

How STM Becomes LTM (Encoding)

  • Rehearsal: Repetition of information enhances storage in LTM.
  • Levels of Processing (Deep vs. Shallow): More meaningful processing leads to better encoding.
  • Elaborative Rehearsal: Connecting new material to already existing knowledge.
  • Making Connections: Forming connections between new and established information.
  • Organizing Information: Structuring information in a meaningful way (e.g., concept maps).

Retrieving Memories (Retrieval Cues & Processing)

  • Retrieval Cues: Stimuli that help access stored memories.
  • Encoding Specificity Principle: Retrieval is enhanced when the context of retrieval matches the context of encoding.
  • State-dependent Learning: Memory retrieval is more successful when the mood or physiological state during retrieval matches that of encoding.

Everyday Memories and Errors in Memory Recall

  • Autobiographical Memory: Recollected events in a person's past.
  • Flashbulb Memories: Vivid and detailed memories for shocking or emotionally charged events.
  • Inferences in Memory: Memories are not perfect recordings. They are constructed based on existing schemas, personal biases, and suggestions.
  • False memories: can due to various sources including experiences, personal biases, and external or internal suggestions.
  • Obstacles to accurate recall: Emotional states (weapons focus effect), level of familiarity and misleading post-event information.

Knowledge Organization Through Concepts and Categories

  • Concepts: Mental representations of general ideas or understandings.
  • Categories: Grouping similar objects, events, or ideas for easy organization.

Three Approaches to Categorization

  • Definitional Approach: Determining if item meets specific, precise criteria. (problems with categories that don't universally fit criteria.)
  • Prototype Approach: Categorize objects based on the resemblance to an ideal "average" member.
  • Exemplar Approach: Categorize objects based on comparison to examples of previously encountered members of the category.

Language and Culture

  • Culture's Influence: Language use varies across cultures, potentially affecting cognitive processes.
  • Relationship between language and culture

Language and the Brain

  • Aphasia: Language impairments due to brain damage, affecting speech production and understanding.
  • Broca's Aphasia: Difficulty with fluent speech production.
  • Wernicke's Aphasia: Difficulty with comprehension and meaningful speech.

Visual Imagery

  • Mental Imagery: Mental images as a form of internal representation without physical stimuli.
  • Imagery Debate: Spatial vs. Propositional (Kosslyn vs. Pylyshyn).
  • Experimental Evidence (Kosslyn): Spatial imagery; image scanning and mental rotation.
  • Imagery & Perception: Close relationships involving similar mechanisms in the brain.

Problem Solving

  • Problems: State of knowing what is needed to get to a goal and lacking directions to get there.
  • Restructuring: Modifying mental representation of a problem; required for insight problems.
  • Search: Identifying and selecting actions to move through possible states (problem space) to reach a solution.
  • Analogies: Applying solutions to similar problems.
  • Expertise: More knowledge, more efficient problem solving, yet still domain specific.
  • Obstacles: Functional fixedness, mental set.
  • Insight: Sudden realisation of a problem's solution.

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