Psychology Chapter on Memory Phenomena

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Questions and Answers

What does the concept of reconstructive memory emphasize in the process of recalling events?

The exact replication of past experiences

The ability to remember every detail of an event accurately

The influence of general knowledge and expectations on recall (correct)

The retention of factual information without errors

What phenomenon do students typically demonstrate when they miss stimuli that are in plain sight due to focused attention?

Attentional blindness (correct)

Change blindness

Weapon focus

Reconstructive memory

What advantage does memory for schema-consistent objects provide in recall according to Brewer & Treyens (1981)?

Improved accuracy for all objects

Enhanced recall through rote memorization

Better memory for inconsistent details

Higher recall and recognition of schema consistent items (correct)

In the context of eyewitness memory, what is the 'weapon focus' effect?

Heightened attention on the weapon at the expense of other details (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary distinction between episodic and semantic memory?

Episodic memory involves personal experiences, while semantic involves general knowledge (C) Signup and view all the answers

How do schemas operate according to Bartlett's concept of memory?

As cognitive shortcuts that enhance memory retrieval (C) Signup and view all the answers

What was found regarding the presentation of warnings before recall in the DRM paradigm?

Warnings before studying the list reduce false memories (D) Signup and view all the answers

What effect do expectations have on memory recall according to Bartlett?

They often result in memory distortions aligning with what one expects (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the memory of skills and classical conditioning effects?

Procedural memory (C) Signup and view all the answers

What did the study by Loftus et al. reveal about eyewitness memory when a weapon is involved?

Eyewitnesses focused on the weapon, affecting their recall of other details (A) Signup and view all the answers

What did the study by Tuckey & Brewer (2003) suggest regarding recall of a bank robbery?

Recall showed bias towards the gender of the robber being male. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of verbal suggestions on eyewitness memory, as shown in Loftus & Zanni (1975)?

Different wording can change reported outcomes significantly. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What do Deffenbacher et al (2004) suggest about anxiety and stress during encoding?

Low anxiety correlates with higher accuracy across identification and scene details. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What are the implications of the Innocence Project's best practices for eyewitness identification?

Proper lineup composition is crucial for accurate identification. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'unconscious transference' refer to in eyewitness memory?

Misidentifying an innocent face due to familiarity. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What did the findings regarding children's eyewitness testimony indicate?

Neutral questioning can lead to errors in children's reports. (D) Signup and view all the answers

How does the distinction between familiarity and recollection contribute to eyewitness memory understanding?

Recollection requires more cognitive effort than familiarity. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant finding from Yuille & Cutshall (1986) regarding real-life crime witnesses?

Witnesses show high accuracy when recalling details in low-stress situations. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What did the study conducted by Schwabe & Wolf (2010) reveal about stress and memory learning?

An uncomfortable social setting decreases memory acquisition. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately reflects the findings on misinformation's effect on eyewitness memory?

Memories may not be overwritten but misinformation can become more accessible. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Reconstructive Memory

Memory is not a passive recording, but a reconstruction.
Inferences are made during encoding.
Information and perspective during retrieval are affected by general knowledge and expectations.
Assumptions and inferences shape memory.

Attentional Blindness and Change Blindness

Attentional blindness: We miss things in plain sight.
Change blindness: Changes missed during interruptions in viewing or attention.
Mack and Rock (1998) studied these phenomena.

Eyewitness Memory

Weapon Focus: Eyewitnesses prioritize the weapon (focus on crucial aspects), potentially overlooking critical details.
Loftus et al (1987): Cheques or guns - gun condition details were more powerful.
Loftus (1979): Overhearing an incident with a pen or knife. Identification rates varied.
Pickle (1999): Manipulating settings and items affected identification. The effect of an "unexpected" item influenced identification.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Procedural Memory: Stores skills (motor and cognitive). Includes classical conditioning.
Declarative Memory: Stores facts and personally experienced events.
- Episodic Memory: Personally experienced events, stored with time and place context.
- Semantic Memory: General knowledge, independent of time and place.

DRM Paradigm

A list of words associated with a critical lure. (Deese 1959, Roediger & McDermott 1995).
Participants falsely recall lures after studying words.
Warnings before recall don't reduce false memories.
Warnings before studying the list do reduce false memories.
Some false memory effect happens during encoding.

Bartlett (1932)

Studied errors in recalling complex stories.
Examined the role of meaning and organization in memory encoding and retrieval.
"Effort after meaning": Individuals actively strive to make sense of learned material.
Schemas are key: Long-term knowledge structures used to understand new information.

Schemas

Schemas are cognitive frameworks composed of knowledge about the world, events, people, actions etc.

Schema in Everyday Life

Brewer & Treyens (1981): Study participants in a room. Schema consistent objects were recalled and recognised more frequently. Schema inconsistent objects were recalled less accurately.
Participants falsely recalled objects based on schemas.
Schema-consistent items were falsely recalled more often.

Schemas and Confirmation Bias

Bartlett (1932): Memory distortions influenced by expectations (schema effect).
Tuckey & Brewer (2003): Bank robbery recall contained information consistent with a bank robbery schema.
Ambiguous conditions can reveal schemas (e.g., gender of masked robber).

Effects during Encoding

Anxiety: Pickel (1999) -No threat effect on accuracy (experimental). Yuille & Cutshall (1986) - real life. Schwabe & Wolf (2010) - stress test and word list learning. Deffenbacher et al (2004) - real life studies show lower anxiety/stress is more accurate. Marr et al (2020) disagreements on effects.
Reduced Attention: Encoding accuracy suffers with reduced attention.

Information After the Event

Loftus & Palmer (1974): Eyewitness testimony is fragile. Words used in questions change recall. Misinformation acceptance increases over time.
Loftus & Zanni (1975): Word choice influences memory (e.g., "frequent" vs. "occasional" headaches).

False Memories

Loftus: False memories can be planted in participants (e.g., 25% of participants).

Children as Eyewitnesses

Children are suggestible, leading to errors (Bruck & Ceci 1997)
Interview methods: Neutral questioning, context reinstatement, drawings, repeated testing.

Familiarity vs. Recollection

Tulving (1985): Distinction between knowing and remembering.
Familiarity (fast, automatic): Knowing something.
Recollection (slow, attention demanding): Remembering something.

Misattribution and Transference

Source misattribution: Failing to distinguish between memory sources.
Unconscious transference: Incorrect identification based on familiarity.

Eyewitness Identification

Eyewitness identification is poor. Improved with sequential lineups, warnings that the culprit may not be present, etc..

The Innocence Project

Best practices for eyewitness identification: Double-blind administration, proper lineups, instructions to the witness, recording the procedure.

The Cognitive Interview

Interview method to recreate context, report everything.

Existing Influences on Identification

Face recognition is difficult for unfamiliar faces.
Accuracy higher with own race/group.
Ingroup benefit may be based on economic factors.

Belief in Eyewitness Testimony

Some caution in relying solely on eyewitness testimony (e.g. 23% of judges).

Laboratory vs. Courtroom

Laboratory findings may overstate or underestimate errors.
Jurors being informed of research findings has effects.

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Description

This quiz explores various aspects of memory, including reconstructive memory, attentional and change blindness, and the impact of weapon focus on eyewitness memory. Delve into research studies that highlight how memories are formed, retrieved, and can be influenced by external factors. Test your understanding of these intricate psychological concepts.