Psychology Chapter on Learning

Learning

• Reflexes are motor or neural reactions to specific environmental stimuli.
  • Examples include moving your hand quickly from a hot object or squinting in bright light.
• Instincts are unlearned knowledge involving complex behavior patterns.
  • Examples include bird migration and bear hibernation.
• Learning is a relatively permanent change in knowledge due to experience.
  • Examples include riding a bike, driving, and calculus.

Associative Learning

• Organisms make connections between stimuli or events that occur together in the environment.
• This establishes a relationship between events.
• Types of associative learning include classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.

Classical Conditioning

• Ivan Pavlov's famous experiments with dogs are an example of classical conditioning.
• Pavlov was initially a physiologist, studying the body's biological functions, focusing on measuring salivation in dogs in response to food.
• He noticed that dogs would eventually salivate just by seeing the food or even the sight of food bowls, even if the food bowls were empty, and even at the sound of footsteps.
• He then trained dogs to associate the sound of a bell with the presentation of food.
• The bell became a conditioned stimulus, eliciting a conditioned response of salivation even when there was no food.

Components of Classical Conditioning

• Unconditioned stimulus – stimulus that elicits reflexive response.
• Conditioned stimulus – stimulus that elicits a response due to its association with an unconditioned stimulus.
• Unconditioned response – natural (unlearned) behavior to given stimulus.
• Conditioned response – response caused by the conditioned stimulus.

Another Example in Humans

• An example shows that the sight of a police car can elicit a negative response (feeling uncomfortable) in someone who has received speeding tickets and negative experiences with police cars in the past.
• The police car is the conditioned stimulus in this context.

Higher-Order/Second-Order Conditioning

• Using a conditioned stimulus to condition a neutral stimulus.
• In essence, teaching a subject to expect a combined outcome from somewhat unrelated stimuli.

Example of Classical Conditioning (Dog)

• A dog (Max) learns over time to associate a leash with going outside, becoming excited, even just when the leash is picked up.

The Process of Classical Conditioning

• Acquisition- when an organism learns to connect a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.
  • During acquisition, the neutral stimulus begins to elicit the conditioned response, becoming a conditioned stimulus.
  • So in Pavlov's experiments, the dogs began to associate the bell sound with food.
• Extinction – decrease in conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is not presented with the conditioned stimulus.
  • A gradual weakening and disappearance of the response.
• Spontaneous Recovery- the return of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest period.
  • Often when the conditioned stimulus is presented again after the rest period, the conditioned response may return.

Distinction

• Stimulus Discrimination - Ability to respond differently to similar stimuli.
  • Examples are the sound of a feeding bell versus a doorbell.
• Stimulus Generalization – demonstrating the conditioned response to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.
  • Responding in a similar way to slightly different stimuli.

Habituation

• Learning not to respond to a constantly presented stimulus. - Example in Pavlov's dog experiments might be learning to ignore a researcher's constant whistling.

Behaviorism

• The idea that all behavior can be studied as a simple stimulus-response reaction, ignoring internal processes.
  • Pavlov's work with dogs is the core inspiration

John B. Watson

• Primarily focused on conditioning infants to fear certain things.
  • Famous experiment with "Little Albert"
    • conditioning fear to a white rat using a loud noise.
    • The fear generalized to other similar objects;

Operant Conditioning

• Learning where the behavior comes first; then it's followed by a reward or punishment.
  • Different from classical conditioning where the stimulus comes first.

Elements of Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

• Skinner's work showed understanding of classical conditioning is limited and focused on new behaviors.
• Behavior is motivated by the consequences of that behavior, including reinforcements and punishments.
• Law of effect – behaviors followed by consequences satisfying to the organism are repeated, and those followed by unpleasant consequences are discouraged.

Skinner's Experiment

• Skinner placed animals in boxes where levers could be pressed when hungry.
• He determined if the animals learned to associate pressing the lever directly with being rewarded with food given.

Operant Conditioning Example

• A dog learns to sit or stay for a treat by completing the indicated action (an operant behavior).
• The reward given after the dog performs the desired action increases the likelihood of the dog repeating the behavior.

Operant Conditioning (More Example)

• A dog being trained not to bark whenever someone walks past his/her house.

Reinforcement

• Positive reinforcement – adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior.
  • Examples include getting paid for work or good grades.
• Negative reinforcement – taking away an undesirable stimulus to increase a behavior.
  • Examples include a car alarm dinging for not putting on a seatbelt.

Punishment

• Positive punishment – adding an undesirable stimulus to stop a behavior.
  • Examples include calling out a student who is texting or receiving a ticket.
• Negative punishment – taking away a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.
  • Examples include taking away a toy or privileges.

Reinforcers

• Primary reinforcers – have innate reinforcing qualities (e.g., food, water, shelter).
• Secondary reinforcers –no inherent value, but gain reinforcing qualities when linked with other things (e.g., money, gold stars, poker chips).

Observational Learning

• Learning via watching and imitating others.
• Social learning theory - people learn from one another through observation.
• The idea bridges behaviorism and cognitive learning theory.

Observational Learning Experiment

• Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment.
• People learn new behaviors by watching others and imitating them.

Types of Observational Learning

• Learning a new response
• Choose whether or not to imitate the model
• Learn a general rule for a situation.

Other Important Types Related to Observational Learning

• Vicarious learning – learning from indirect sources (observing someone getting rewarded or punished).
• Vicarious reinforcement – observer sees model rewarded; observer is more likely to imitate.
• Vicarious punishment – observer sees model punished; observer is less likely to imitate.

This quiz covers important concepts of learning, reflexes, and instincts. It includes information on associative learning and classical conditioning, highlighting key experiments such as those conducted by Ivan Pavlov. Test your understanding of these fundamental psychological principles.