Psychology Chapter on Learning

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Questions and Answers

What defines an unconditioned stimulus in classical conditioning?

Stimulus that elicits a learned behavior

Conscious response to a specific condition

Neutral stimulus paired with an unconditioned response

Stimulus that produces a reflexive response (correct)

In the example of a person becoming uncomfortable at the sight of a police car, what is the conditioned stimulus?

The feelings of discomfort

The act of being pulled over

The police car itself (correct)

The speeding ticket

What is the difference between an unconditioned response and a conditioned response?

An unconditioned response occurs naturally; a conditioned response is learned (correct)

An unconditioned response is always negative; a conditioned response is always positive

An unconditioned response is learned; a conditioned response is natural

There is no difference between the two

In higher order conditioning, what is the role of the conditioned stimulus?

To create a new conditioned response in association with a neutral stimulus Signup and view all the answers

What best describes the conditioned response in the example of Max the dog waiting to go outside?

His anticipation upon seeing the leash Signup and view all the answers

Why might someone react negatively upon seeing a police car after past experiences with speeding tickets?

They have learned to associate police cars with negative consequences Signup and view all the answers

In the context of classical conditioning, which illustrates an unconditioned stimulus?

The speeding ticket itself Signup and view all the answers

What would be an example of a neutral stimulus in higher order conditioning using the example of Max?

Max's leash before it is associated with going outside Signup and view all the answers

What defines learning in the context described?

A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT an example of reflexes?

Migrating south for the winter Signup and view all the answers

Which type of learning involves making connections between stimuli or events?

Associative learning Signup and view all the answers

What was the main focus of Ivan Pavlov's original research?

Measuring the amount of dog salivation in response to food Signup and view all the answers

What was Pavlov's key observation regarding the dogs during his experiments?

Dogs began to salivate in response to the sound of a bell Signup and view all the answers

Which example correctly illustrates instincts?

Hibernating behavior of bears Signup and view all the answers

In the context of classical conditioning, which item would be an unconditioned stimulus?

The food presented to the dogs Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary cause of Little Albert's fear of rats according to Watson's findings?

Conditioning through loud noise Signup and view all the answers

What does the law of effect state regarding behaviors and their consequences?

Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences will be repeated. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios is an example of observational learning?

A student mimics a teacher's actions during a demonstration Signup and view all the answers

How does operant conditioning primarily differ from classical conditioning?

Operant conditioning is based on consequences of behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant conclusion from Skinner's experiments with animals?

Reinforcement can increase the frequency of a specific behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon is demonstrated when Little Albert began fearing not only rats, but also animals resembling them?

Stimulus generalization Signup and view all the answers

In operant conditioning, what role do reinforcements play?

They are rewards that increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during the acquisition phase of classical conditioning?

The neutral stimulus starts to elicit a conditioned response. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes extinction in classical conditioning?

The gradual disappearance of the conditioned response. Signup and view all the answers

What outcome occurred when the conditioning with Little Albert ended?

Extinction of his conditioned fear occurred. Signup and view all the answers

What limitation of classical conditioning did B.F. Skinner identify?

It cannot explain complex behavior acquisition. Signup and view all the answers

What does spontaneous recovery refer to in classical conditioning?

The return of a previously extinguished conditioned response. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of classical conditioning, what is stimulus discrimination?

The ability to respond differently to similar stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

How does stimulus generalization differ from stimulus discrimination?

It leads to responding similarly to different stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

What is habituation in the context of learning?

Learning to ignore a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind behaviorism?

Behavior is the result of classical conditioning without regard to internal states. Signup and view all the answers

What was John B. Watson's experiment with Little Albert primarily focused on?

Conditioning an infant to fear specific animals and objects. Signup and view all the answers

During Watson's conditioning experiment, what sound would indicate that Little Albert should be afraid?

The sound of metal being hit with a hammer. Signup and view all the answers

What happens to a conditioned response over time when the association is not reinforced?

It diminishes and may eventually disappear. Signup and view all the answers

What happens when a stimulus is added to decrease a behavior?

Positive punishment Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes a primary reinforcer from a secondary reinforcer?

Secondary reinforcers must be linked with something else for value. Signup and view all the answers

Which example illustrates negative reinforcement?

Removing a loud alarm when you put on your seatbelt. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main concept behind observational learning?

Learning by observing and imitating others. Signup and view all the answers

In Sigmund's case, what did he learn from the operant conditioning attempt?

To wait for the treat before barking. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of positive reinforcement?

Providing snacks for good behavior. Signup and view all the answers

The social learning theory incorporates which cognitive processes?

Attention, memory, and motivation. Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario best exemplifies negative punishment?

A student loses recess time for misbehavior. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Learning

Reflexes are motor or neural reactions to specific environmental stimuli.
- Examples include moving your hand quickly from a hot object or squinting in bright light.
Instincts are unlearned knowledge involving complex behavior patterns.
- Examples include bird migration and bear hibernation.
Learning is a relatively permanent change in knowledge due to experience.
- Examples include riding a bike, driving, and calculus.

Associative Learning

Organisms make connections between stimuli or events that occur together in the environment.
This establishes a relationship between events.
Types of associative learning include classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.

Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov's famous experiments with dogs are an example of classical conditioning.
Pavlov was initially a physiologist, studying the body's biological functions, focusing on measuring salivation in dogs in response to food.
He noticed that dogs would eventually salivate just by seeing the food or even the sight of food bowls, even if the food bowls were empty, and even at the sound of footsteps.
He then trained dogs to associate the sound of a bell with the presentation of food.
The bell became a conditioned stimulus, eliciting a conditioned response of salivation even when there was no food.

Components of Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned stimulus – stimulus that elicits reflexive response.
Conditioned stimulus – stimulus that elicits a response due to its association with an unconditioned stimulus.
Unconditioned response – natural (unlearned) behavior to given stimulus.
Conditioned response – response caused by the conditioned stimulus.

Another Example in Humans

An example shows that the sight of a police car can elicit a negative response (feeling uncomfortable) in someone who has received speeding tickets and negative experiences with police cars in the past.
The police car is the conditioned stimulus in this context.

Higher-Order/Second-Order Conditioning

Using a conditioned stimulus to condition a neutral stimulus.
In essence, teaching a subject to expect a combined outcome from somewhat unrelated stimuli.

Example of Classical Conditioning (Dog)

A dog (Max) learns over time to associate a leash with going outside, becoming excited, even just when the leash is picked up.

The Process of Classical Conditioning

Acquisition- when an organism learns to connect a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.
- During acquisition, the neutral stimulus begins to elicit the conditioned response, becoming a conditioned stimulus.
- So in Pavlov's experiments, the dogs began to associate the bell sound with food.
Extinction – decrease in conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is not presented with the conditioned stimulus.
- A gradual weakening and disappearance of the response.
Spontaneous Recovery- the return of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest period.
- Often when the conditioned stimulus is presented again after the rest period, the conditioned response may return.

Distinction

Stimulus Discrimination - Ability to respond differently to similar stimuli.
- Examples are the sound of a feeding bell versus a doorbell.
Stimulus Generalization – demonstrating the conditioned response to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.
- Responding in a similar way to slightly different stimuli.

Habituation

Learning not to respond to a constantly presented stimulus. - Example in Pavlov's dog experiments might be learning to ignore a researcher's constant whistling.

Behaviorism

The idea that all behavior can be studied as a simple stimulus-response reaction, ignoring internal processes.
- Pavlov's work with dogs is the core inspiration

John B. Watson

Primarily focused on conditioning infants to fear certain things.
- Famous experiment with "Little Albert"
  - conditioning fear to a white rat using a loud noise.
  - The fear generalized to other similar objects;

Operant Conditioning

Learning where the behavior comes first; then it's followed by a reward or punishment.
- Different from classical conditioning where the stimulus comes first.

Elements of Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

Skinner's work showed understanding of classical conditioning is limited and focused on new behaviors.
Behavior is motivated by the consequences of that behavior, including reinforcements and punishments.
Law of effect – behaviors followed by consequences satisfying to the organism are repeated, and those followed by unpleasant consequences are discouraged.

Skinner's Experiment

Skinner placed animals in boxes where levers could be pressed when hungry.
He determined if the animals learned to associate pressing the lever directly with being rewarded with food given.

Operant Conditioning Example

A dog learns to sit or stay for a treat by completing the indicated action (an operant behavior).
The reward given after the dog performs the desired action increases the likelihood of the dog repeating the behavior.

Operant Conditioning (More Example)

A dog being trained not to bark whenever someone walks past his/her house.

Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement – adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior.
- Examples include getting paid for work or good grades.
Negative reinforcement – taking away an undesirable stimulus to increase a behavior.
- Examples include a car alarm dinging for not putting on a seatbelt.

Punishment

Positive punishment – adding an undesirable stimulus to stop a behavior.
- Examples include calling out a student who is texting or receiving a ticket.
Negative punishment – taking away a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.
- Examples include taking away a toy or privileges.

Reinforcers

Primary reinforcers – have innate reinforcing qualities (e.g., food, water, shelter).
Secondary reinforcers –no inherent value, but gain reinforcing qualities when linked with other things (e.g., money, gold stars, poker chips).

Observational Learning

Learning via watching and imitating others.
Social learning theory - people learn from one another through observation.
The idea bridges behaviorism and cognitive learning theory.

Observational Learning Experiment

Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment.
People learn new behaviors by watching others and imitating them.

Types of Observational Learning

Learning a new response
Choose whether or not to imitate the model
Learn a general rule for a situation.

Vicarious learning – learning from indirect sources (observing someone getting rewarded or punished).
Vicarious reinforcement – observer sees model rewarded; observer is more likely to imitate.
Vicarious punishment – observer sees model punished; observer is less likely to imitate.

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Description

This quiz covers important concepts of learning, reflexes, and instincts. It includes information on associative learning and classical conditioning, highlighting key experiments such as those conducted by Ivan Pavlov. Test your understanding of these fundamental psychological principles.