Psychology Chapter on Development

A fixation that occurs when an individual's needs are not met during a specific psychosexual stage, leading to the manifestation of behaviors related to that erogenous zone in adulthood.

The area of the body that is the source of pleasure during a particular psychosexual stage.

Freud's theory that sexual energy shifts from one part of the body to another throughout development, seeking gratification of different biological needs.

The stage between birth and 8 months where the mouth is the primary source of pleasure, and oral fixation can result from too much or too little satisfaction.

A personality type characterized by an increased focus on oral activities, such as smoking, drinking, or overeating.

The stage between 18 months and 3 years where the anus is the primary source of pleasure, and anal fixation can result from struggles with toilet training.

A personality type characterized by an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control, often resulting from a fixation on the anal stage.

A personality type characterized by messiness, disorganization, and a lack of control, often resulting from a fixation on the anal stage.

The initial stage of play development where children engage in individual activities without engaging with others or showing interest in their play.

The stage where children observe others playing but do not actively participate. This can be due to hesitancy, disinterest, or fear of joining.

A phase of play where children engage in similar activities alongside each other but without direct interaction or shared goals. This allows them to understand the concept of playing together, even though they are still independent.

This stage involves children sharing toys and materials, participating in shared activities, and playing together without a specific goal or structure. Communication is minimal as they focus on their individual actions.

The most advanced stage of play, marked by children collaborating together with agreed-upon rules, roles, and a shared goal. This can be through building a sandcastle, playing a game, or acting out a story.

Maslow's theory suggests that humans are motivated by a hierarchy of needs, starting with basic physiological needs and progressing to more advanced self-actualization needs.

The most basic level of Maslow's Hierarchy, consisting of needs essential for survival. These include breathing, food, water, shelter, sleep, and clothing.

A stage of psychosocial development proposed by Erik Erikson, occurring from adolescence to young adulthood (roughly 12-18 years old) where individuals explore their sense of self and independence through trying different roles, activities, and relationships.

A stage of psychosocial development proposed by Erik Erikson, occurring from young adulthood to middle adulthood (roughly 19-40 years old) where individuals focus on building meaningful relationships and forming deep connections with others.

A stage of psychosocial development proposed by Erik Erikson, occurring from middle adulthood to late adulthood (roughly 40-65 years old) where individuals focus on leaving a positive mark on the world and contributing to society.

A stage of psychosocial development proposed by Erik Erikson, occurring in late adulthood (65 years and beyond) where individuals reflect on their life's achievements and find meaning in their experiences.

A parenting style characterized by high levels of control and low levels of warmth or responsiveness. They set strict rules, enforce them with punishment, and expect obedience.

A parenting style characterized by low levels of control and high levels of warmth and responsiveness. They are lenient, set few limits, and prioritize their child's happiness and freedom.

A parenting style characterized by high levels of control and high levels of warmth and responsiveness. They set clear expectations, communicate openly, and allow for discussions and negotiation.

A parenting style characterized by low levels of control and low levels of warmth or responsiveness. They are uninvolved in their child's life, showing little interest or emotional support.

Learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus, eliciting a similar response.

The original stimulus that naturally triggers an automatic response without any prior learning.

The automatic response triggered by an unconditioned stimulus.

Neutral stimulus that becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus through repeated pairings.

Learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

The phase where the neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

The phase where the neutral stimulus is presented alone, without the unconditioned stimulus.

A new stimulus that was neutral before conditioning now elicits a similar response as the unconditioned stimulus.

The initial phase before the neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Learning through repetition and practice.

The process of strengthening a behavior by introducing a pleasant consequence. It involves associating desired actions with enjoyable outcomes.

The process of strengthening a behavior by removing an unpleasant consequence. It involves associating desired actions with relief from negative stimuli.

The process of weakening a behavior by introducing an unpleasant consequence. It involves associating undesirable actions with negative outcomes.

The process of weakening a behavior by removing the positive consequence that previously reinforced it. It involves removing the reinforcement that maintained the behavior.

The process of strengthening behavior by providing consequences. These consequences can be positive or negative, and they influence the likelihood of repeating or avoiding a particular behavior.

The four types of consequences are Positive Reinforcement (adding something good), Negative Reinforcement (removing something bad), Punishment (adding something bad), and Extinction (removing something good). Understanding these concepts helps explain how behavior can be influenced through various consequences.

B.F. Skinner introduced the concept of reinforcement to describe the influence of consequences on behavior. His work demonstrated that behaviors are more likely to occur if they are followed by positive or negative reinforcement, while punishment and extinction tend to weaken behaviors.