Psychology Chapter on Consciousness and Sleep

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Questions and Answers

What is the purpose of stimulus generalization in classical conditioning?

To completely erase previous conditioning responses

To teach an organism to respond to new stimuli without any training

To ensure that the organism ignores all stimuli except the conditioned one

To elicit a response from stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus (correct)

What is the outcome when extinction occurs in classical conditioning?

The conditioned stimulus elicits no response (correct)

The conditioned response becomes stronger

New behaviors are learned through punishment

The unconditioned response is enhanced

What is an example of positive reinforcement?

Reminding a child to do their homework

Barking at a stranger to alert the owner

Taking away a toy when a child misbehaves

Giving a dog a treat for sitting on command (correct)

Who proposed the Law of Effect and what does it state?

Edward Thorndike; behaviors followed by positive consequences are likely to be repeated Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning?

The conditioned response reappears after extinction Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between punishment and reinforcement?

Punishment decreases the likelihood of a behavior while reinforcement increases it Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT one of the key components of classical conditioning?

Conditioned reinforcement (CRF) Signup and view all the answers

In terms of reinforcement schedules, which type provides rewards after a variable number of responses?

Variable ratio Signup and view all the answers

What are circadian rhythms primarily influenced by?

Light Signup and view all the answers

What is a key difference between REM sleep and NREM sleep?

NREM sleep generally has lighter stages, whereas REM sleep involves muscle paralysis. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the activation-synthesis theory of dreams?

The brain organizes neural activity into coherent narratives. Signup and view all the answers

What is a common symptom of narcolepsy?

Sudden REM sleep episodes Signup and view all the answers

What does linguistic relativity suggest about language?

Language influences thought processes. Signup and view all the answers

How does pragmatics contribute to language development?

It aids in understanding social language use. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about neuroplasticity is true?

It aids recovery from brain injury by reorganizing connections. Signup and view all the answers

What role does the reward pathway play in addiction?

It reinforces pleasurable behaviors through dopamine release. Signup and view all the answers

What are the three main processes involved in memory?

Encoding, storage, retrieval Signup and view all the answers

How does short-term memory differ from long-term memory in terms of duration?

Short-term memory lasts for 15-30 seconds, while long-term memory can last indefinitely. Signup and view all the answers

What effect does suggestive questioning have on eyewitness reliability?

It distorts memories. Signup and view all the answers

What type of memory is primarily responsible for holding raw sensory information?

Sensory memory Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes observational learning from direct experience?

Observational learning is based on imitation. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of rehearsal enhances memory by linking new information with existing knowledge?

Elaborative rehearsal Signup and view all the answers

What is shaping in behavioral psychology?

The gradual reinforcement of successive approximations to reach a full behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What concept describes stimuli that assist in retrieving stored information?

Retrieval cues Signup and view all the answers

How does elaborative rehearsal improve memory retention?

By connecting new information to existing knowledge. Signup and view all the answers

What change occurs in sleep patterns as people age?

Decreased time in deep sleep. Signup and view all the answers

What is the misinformation effect?

When misleading information alters a person's memory of an event Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes a token economy?

A reinforcement strategy using tokens that can be exchanged for various rewards. Signup and view all the answers

Who is known for studying observational learning, particularly through the Bobo Doll experiment?

Albert Bandura Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a type of long-term memory that includes facts and personal experiences?

Declarative memory Signup and view all the answers

What role does reinforcement play in motivation during learning?

It enhances motivation by providing positive outcomes. Signup and view all the answers

What does the critical period hypothesis suggest about language development?

It indicates an optimal period in early childhood for language acquisition. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of selective attention in memory processing?

To concentrate on and transfer relevant information to short-term memory Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of vicarious conditioning?

A student feels anxious when they hear a classmate express fear of exams. Signup and view all the answers

Which concept did Edward Tolman introduce?

Latent learning, which occurs without immediate reinforcement. Signup and view all the answers

What type of memory is associated with unconscious skills?

Implicit memory. Signup and view all the answers

What impact does learned helplessness have on behavior?

It leads to passivity and feelings of depression. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a main process of memory?

Retention Signup and view all the answers

How does selective attention benefit memory?

It helps focus on specific stimuli, transferring them to short-term memory. Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes iconic memory from echoic memory?

Iconic memory is a brief visual retention while echoic is auditory. Signup and view all the answers

What does the representativeness heuristic involve?

Judging likelihood based on resemblance to typical cases Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of the availability heuristic?

Overestimating the frequency of car accidents after hearing about one Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes insight during problem-solving?

A sudden realization of a solution Signup and view all the answers

What is functional fixedness in the context of problem-solving?

Seeing objects only in their typical use Signup and view all the answers

What does convergent thinking focus on?

Finding a single correct solution Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of creative individuals?

Reluctance to take risks Signup and view all the answers

How can creativity be developed?

Through practice and exposure to diverse experiences Signup and view all the answers

Why is intelligence significant in psychology?

It affects the ability to solve problems and adapt to situations Signup and view all the answers

Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Consciousness

Consciousness is awareness of everything happening around and inside you at any given moment.
It organizes behavior, thoughts, sensations, and feelings.
Altered states of consciousness are when mental activity shifts from normal waking consciousness, leading to fuzzy, disorganized, or more alert thoughts. Examples include sleep, hypnosis, meditation and drug-induced states.

Circadian Rhythm

Circadian rhythm is a 24-hour biological cycle regulating the sleep-wake pattern.
Controlled by the hypothalamus and influenced by melatonin secretion.

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

The SCN is located in the hypothalamus.
Acts as the internal biological clock.
Regulates melatonin release, and responds to light signals to maintain sleep-wake cycles.

Sleep Types

Two main types of sleep: REM (Rapid Eye Movement) and NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement).
REM sleep is associated with dreaming, rapid brain activity, and muscle paralysis.
NREM sleep includes three stages (N1, N2, N3) and is responsible for physical restoration.

Sleep Spindles

Brief bursts of brain activity.
Occur in the N2 stage of NREM sleep.
Help with memory consolidation.

REM Behavior Disorder (RBD)

A sleep disorder.
Individuals physically act out their dreams due to a failure in muscle paralysis during REM sleep.

Sleep Paralysis

A temporary inability to move or speak while falling asleep or waking up.
Often occurs during the REM stage.

Nightmares and Night Terrors

Nightmares occur during REM sleep, are vivid, and can be recalled.
Night terrors occur in deep NREM sleep (N3), causes extreme fear, and are often not remembered.

Insomnia

A sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or obtaining restful sleep.
Often caused by stress or poor sleep habits.

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder where individuals suddenly fall into REM sleep during the day without warning.
Often accompanied by cataplexy.

Psychoactive Drugs

Three main types: Stimulants, Depressants, and Hallucinogens.
Stimulants increase nervous system activity (e.g., caffeine, cocaine, nicotine).
Depressants slow down nervous system activity (e.g., alcohol, tranquilizers).
Hallucinogens alter perception and create sensory distortions (e.g., LSD, marijuana).

Drug Tolerance

Drug tolerance occurs when the body requires higher doses of a drug to achieve the same effect due to repeated use.

Physical Dependence

Physical dependence occurs when the body cannot function normally without a drug.
Leading to withdrawal symptoms when the drug is not taken.

Psychological Dependence

Psychological dependence happens when a person believes they need a drug for emotional or mental well-being, even if there is no physical addiction.

Freud's Theory of Dreams

Freud's wish fulfillment theory suggests that dreams are symbolic expressions of unconscious desires and repressed conflicts.

Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis

Dreams are random brain activity during REM sleep.
The cortex tries to synthesize these signals into a meaningful narrative.

Hypnosis

An altered state of consciousness where a person becomes highly suggestible.
Involves relaxation, focused attention, following suggestions given by a hypnotist.

Meditation

A mental exercise promoting relaxation and mindfulness.
Can reduce stress, anxiety, pain, and improve overall well-being.

Hallucinogenic Drugs

Alter sensory perceptions and can cause visual or auditory hallucinations, emotional shifts, and altered states of reality. Examples include LSD, MDMA, and marijuana.

Classical Conditioning

Learning through association between stimuli.
Key components include: neutral stimulus (NS), unconditioned stimulus (UCS), unconditioned response (UCR), conditioned stimulus (CS), and conditioned response (CR).

Operant Conditioning

Learning through consequences (rewards or punishments).

Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by positive consequences are more likely to be repeated.
Behaviors followed by negative consequences are less likely to be repeated.

Positive Reinforcement

Strengthens a behavior by adding a pleasurable stimulus.

Negative Reinforcement

Strengthens a behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus.

Punishment

Decreases the likelihood of a behavior.

Shaping

Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior.

Token Economy

A reinforcement system using tokens that can be exchanged for rewards.

Observational Learning

Learning by watching others.

Vicarious Conditioning

Learning through observing another person's response to a stimulus.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without immediate reinforcement and becomes apparent when needed.

Misinformation Effect

When misleading information alters an individual's memory of an event.

Flashbulb Memories

Vivid, detailed memories of emotionally significant events.

Reconstructive Nature of Memory

Memory is not a perfect recording but is reconstructed each time it is recalled.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories.

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of past memories.

False Memory Syndrome

Creating inaccurate memories due to suggestion, hypnosis, or leading questions.

Semantic Network Model

Concepts in memory are linked, and activating one concept can trigger related concepts.

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Description

Explore the fascinating concepts of consciousness, circadian rhythms, and sleep types in this quiz. Learn about how awareness affects behavior and the biological mechanisms that regulate our sleep patterns, including the roles of the SCN and melatonin. Test your understanding of these essential psychological concepts.