Psychology Chapter on Consciousness and Sleep
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Questions and Answers

What is the purpose of stimulus generalization in classical conditioning?

  • To completely erase previous conditioning responses
  • To teach an organism to respond to new stimuli without any training
  • To ensure that the organism ignores all stimuli except the conditioned one
  • To elicit a response from stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus (correct)

What is the outcome when extinction occurs in classical conditioning?

  • The conditioned stimulus elicits no response (correct)
  • The conditioned response becomes stronger
  • New behaviors are learned through punishment
  • The unconditioned response is enhanced

What is an example of positive reinforcement?

  • Reminding a child to do their homework
  • Barking at a stranger to alert the owner
  • Taking away a toy when a child misbehaves
  • Giving a dog a treat for sitting on command (correct)

Who proposed the Law of Effect and what does it state?

<p>Edward Thorndike; behaviors followed by positive consequences are likely to be repeated (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning?

<p>The conditioned response reappears after extinction (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between punishment and reinforcement?

<p>Punishment decreases the likelihood of a behavior while reinforcement increases it (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT one of the key components of classical conditioning?

<p>Conditioned reinforcement (CRF) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In terms of reinforcement schedules, which type provides rewards after a variable number of responses?

<p>Variable ratio (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are circadian rhythms primarily influenced by?

<p>Light (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key difference between REM sleep and NREM sleep?

<p>NREM sleep generally has lighter stages, whereas REM sleep involves muscle paralysis. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the activation-synthesis theory of dreams?

<p>The brain organizes neural activity into coherent narratives. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common symptom of narcolepsy?

<p>Sudden REM sleep episodes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does linguistic relativity suggest about language?

<p>Language influences thought processes. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does pragmatics contribute to language development?

<p>It aids in understanding social language use. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about neuroplasticity is true?

<p>It aids recovery from brain injury by reorganizing connections. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does the reward pathway play in addiction?

<p>It reinforces pleasurable behaviors through dopamine release. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the three main processes involved in memory?

<p>Encoding, storage, retrieval (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does short-term memory differ from long-term memory in terms of duration?

<p>Short-term memory lasts for 15-30 seconds, while long-term memory can last indefinitely. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does suggestive questioning have on eyewitness reliability?

<p>It distorts memories. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of memory is primarily responsible for holding raw sensory information?

<p>Sensory memory (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes observational learning from direct experience?

<p>Observational learning is based on imitation. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of rehearsal enhances memory by linking new information with existing knowledge?

<p>Elaborative rehearsal (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is shaping in behavioral psychology?

<p>The gradual reinforcement of successive approximations to reach a full behavior. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What concept describes stimuli that assist in retrieving stored information?

<p>Retrieval cues (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does elaborative rehearsal improve memory retention?

<p>By connecting new information to existing knowledge. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What change occurs in sleep patterns as people age?

<p>Decreased time in deep sleep. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the misinformation effect?

<p>When misleading information alters a person's memory of an event (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes a token economy?

<p>A reinforcement strategy using tokens that can be exchanged for various rewards. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who is known for studying observational learning, particularly through the Bobo Doll experiment?

<p>Albert Bandura (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a type of long-term memory that includes facts and personal experiences?

<p>Declarative memory (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does reinforcement play in motivation during learning?

<p>It enhances motivation by providing positive outcomes. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the critical period hypothesis suggest about language development?

<p>It indicates an optimal period in early childhood for language acquisition. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of selective attention in memory processing?

<p>To concentrate on and transfer relevant information to short-term memory (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of vicarious conditioning?

<p>A student feels anxious when they hear a classmate express fear of exams. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which concept did Edward Tolman introduce?

<p>Latent learning, which occurs without immediate reinforcement. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of memory is associated with unconscious skills?

<p>Implicit memory. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What impact does learned helplessness have on behavior?

<p>It leads to passivity and feelings of depression. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a main process of memory?

<p>Retention (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does selective attention benefit memory?

<p>It helps focus on specific stimuli, transferring them to short-term memory. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes iconic memory from echoic memory?

<p>Iconic memory is a brief visual retention while echoic is auditory. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the representativeness heuristic involve?

<p>Judging likelihood based on resemblance to typical cases (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of the availability heuristic?

<p>Overestimating the frequency of car accidents after hearing about one (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes insight during problem-solving?

<p>A sudden realization of a solution (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is functional fixedness in the context of problem-solving?

<p>Seeing objects only in their typical use (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does convergent thinking focus on?

<p>Finding a single correct solution (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of creative individuals?

<p>Reluctance to take risks (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can creativity be developed?

<p>Through practice and exposure to diverse experiences (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is intelligence significant in psychology?

<p>It affects the ability to solve problems and adapt to situations (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

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Flashcards

Classical Conditioning

A neutral stimulus (NS) becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that naturally produces an unconditioned response (UCR). Through repeated pairings, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS), eliciting a learned conditioned response (CR) similar to the original unconditioned response.

Stimulus Generalization

A response learned through classical conditioning is triggered by stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus.

Stimulus Discrimination

A response is learned to be triggered only by a specific stimulus, not similar ones.

Extinction in Classical Conditioning

Repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus (CS) without the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) leads to the weakening and eventual disappearance of the conditioned response (CR).

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Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a conditioned response (CR) after a period of extinction, when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented again.

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Operant Conditioning

Learning through rewards (reinforcement) and punishments, associated with B.F. Skinner.

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The Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by positive consequences are more likely to be repeated, while those followed by negative consequences are less likely to be repeated.

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Positive Reinforcement

Strengthening a behavior by adding a pleasurable stimulus.

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Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without immediate reinforcement, becoming apparent when needed.

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Vicarious Conditioning

Learning by observing others' responses to a stimulus.

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Token Economy

A reinforcement system using tokens exchangeable for rewards.

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Shaping

Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior until the full behavior is achieved.

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Sensory Memory

The first stage of memory that holds sensory information briefly.

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Iconic Memory

A brief visual memory that lasts about 250 milliseconds.

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Echoic Memory

A brief auditory memory that lasts 2–4 seconds.

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Selective Attention

The ability to focus on specific stimuli and move relevant information from sensory memory to short-term memory.

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Misinformation Effect

Suggestive questioning can distort memory, impacting eyewitness reliability in court.

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Observational vs. Direct Learning

Observational learning involves watching others and imitating their actions, while direct experience involves personal involvement in the activity.

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Elaborative Rehearsal

Elaborative rehearsal strengthens memory by connecting new information with existing knowledge, creating strong retrieval cues for long-term retention.

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Emotional Regulation

Emotional regulation involves managing and responding to emotional experiences appropriately, reducing stress and enhancing well-being.

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Sleep Cycle Changes with Age

As people age, they spend less time in deep sleep (NREM) and REM sleep, leading to lighter, more fragmented sleep patterns.

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Reinforcement in Learning

Reinforcement enhances motivation by providing positive outcomes or reducing negative stimuli, encouraging repetition of desired behaviors.

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Critical Period Hypothesis

The critical period hypothesis suggests an optimal time for language acquisition, usually during early childhood, beyond which fluent learning becomes more difficult.

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Hippocampus and Memory

The hippocampus plays a crucial role in forming and consolidating new memories, especially declarative and episodic memories.

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Memory

An active system that receives, organizes, stores, and retrieves information from the senses.

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Short-Term Memory

Holds information briefly (15-30 seconds) with a limited capacity (around 7 items).

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Long-Term Memory

Stores information for extended periods, potentially indefinitely, with a vast capacity.

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Information Processing Model of Memory

A model that compares memory to a computer processing information, with stages for input, storage, and retrieval.

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Retrieval Cues

Stimuli that help access stored information, enhancing memory recall.

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What are Circadian Rhythms?

Circadian rhythms are biological clocks that regulate 24-hour cycles in our bodies, such as sleep-wake patterns, hormone release, and body temperature. They are primarily influenced by light exposure.

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Compare REM and NREM Sleep.

REM sleep is characterized by rapid eye movements, vivid dreams, and muscle paralysis, while NREM sleep involves four stages with progressively deeper sleep and reduced brain activity. REM sleep is crucial for memory consolidation and emotional processing, while NREM sleep is essential for physical restoration and tissue repair.

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How does the activation-synthesis theory explain dreams?

The activation-synthesis theory proposes that dreams arise from random neural activity in the brain during REM sleep. The brain attempts to make sense of this activity by creating a narrative, resulting in the often strange and illogical nature of dreams.

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What is neuroplasticity, and how does it aid recovery from brain injury?

Neuroplasticity is the brain's ability to adapt and change throughout life. This includes forming new connections, reorganizing existing circuits, and even generating new brain cells. It is crucial for learning, memory, and recovery from brain injuries.

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How does mindfulness improve psychological well-being?

Mindfulness involves paying attention to the present moment without judgment. This practice helps reduce stress, anxiety, and depression by enhancing emotional regulation and improving self-awareness.

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How do psychoactive drugs affect the nervous system?

Psychoactive drugs interact with the nervous system, altering brain chemistry and affecting perception, mood, and behavior. This can lead to addiction, tolerance, and cognitive impairments.

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Describe the reward pathway and its role in addiction.

The reward pathway is a network in the brain that releases dopamine during pleasurable activities, reinforcing these behaviors. This system can be hijacked by addictive substances, leading to compulsive seeking and use.

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Define linguistic relativity and provide an example.

Linguistic relativity suggests that language influences thought. For example, cultures with more specific color terms may perceive shades differently. This highlights the close relationship between our language and how we understand the world.

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Representativeness Heuristic

Judging the likelihood of an event based on how closely it resembles a typical case. It can lead to errors, such as stereotyping.

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Availability Heuristic

Estimating the frequency of an event based on how easily examples come to mind. For instance, people may overestimate the danger of flying after hearing about a plane crash.

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Insight

The sudden realization of a solution to a problem, often described as an "Aha!" moment, where the individual sees the problem in a new way.

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Functional Fixedness

Seeing objects only in their typical use, making it difficult to find creative solutions.

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Mental Set

Relying on past solutions, even if they are not the most effective for the current problem.

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Confirmation Bias

Favoring information that confirms existing beliefs, ignoring evidence that contradicts them.

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Creativity

The ability to generate new ideas or solutions by combining existing concepts in novel ways.

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Convergent Thinking

Focusing on finding a single correct solution to a problem.

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Study Notes

Consciousness

  • Consciousness is awareness of everything happening around and inside you at any given moment.
  • It organizes behavior, thoughts, sensations, and feelings.
  • Altered states of consciousness are when mental activity shifts from normal waking consciousness, leading to fuzzy, disorganized, or more alert thoughts. Examples include sleep, hypnosis, meditation and drug-induced states.

Circadian Rhythm

  • Circadian rhythm is a 24-hour biological cycle regulating the sleep-wake pattern.
  • Controlled by the hypothalamus and influenced by melatonin secretion.

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

  • The SCN is located in the hypothalamus.
  • Acts as the internal biological clock.
  • Regulates melatonin release, and responds to light signals to maintain sleep-wake cycles.

Sleep Types

  • Two main types of sleep: REM (Rapid Eye Movement) and NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement).
  • REM sleep is associated with dreaming, rapid brain activity, and muscle paralysis.
  • NREM sleep includes three stages (N1, N2, N3) and is responsible for physical restoration.

Sleep Spindles

  • Brief bursts of brain activity.
  • Occur in the N2 stage of NREM sleep.
  • Help with memory consolidation.

REM Behavior Disorder (RBD)

  • A sleep disorder.
  • Individuals physically act out their dreams due to a failure in muscle paralysis during REM sleep.

Sleep Paralysis

  • A temporary inability to move or speak while falling asleep or waking up.
  • Often occurs during the REM stage.

Nightmares and Night Terrors

  • Nightmares occur during REM sleep, are vivid, and can be recalled.
  • Night terrors occur in deep NREM sleep (N3), causes extreme fear, and are often not remembered.

Insomnia

  • A sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or obtaining restful sleep.
  • Often caused by stress or poor sleep habits.

Narcolepsy

  • A sleep disorder where individuals suddenly fall into REM sleep during the day without warning.
  • Often accompanied by cataplexy.

Psychoactive Drugs

  • Three main types: Stimulants, Depressants, and Hallucinogens.
  • Stimulants increase nervous system activity (e.g., caffeine, cocaine, nicotine).
  • Depressants slow down nervous system activity (e.g., alcohol, tranquilizers).
  • Hallucinogens alter perception and create sensory distortions (e.g., LSD, marijuana).

Drug Tolerance

  • Drug tolerance occurs when the body requires higher doses of a drug to achieve the same effect due to repeated use.

Physical Dependence

  • Physical dependence occurs when the body cannot function normally without a drug.
  • Leading to withdrawal symptoms when the drug is not taken.

Psychological Dependence

  • Psychological dependence happens when a person believes they need a drug for emotional or mental well-being, even if there is no physical addiction.

Freud's Theory of Dreams

  • Freud's wish fulfillment theory suggests that dreams are symbolic expressions of unconscious desires and repressed conflicts.

Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis

  • Dreams are random brain activity during REM sleep.
  • The cortex tries to synthesize these signals into a meaningful narrative.

Hypnosis

  • An altered state of consciousness where a person becomes highly suggestible.
  • Involves relaxation, focused attention, following suggestions given by a hypnotist.

Meditation

  • A mental exercise promoting relaxation and mindfulness.
  • Can reduce stress, anxiety, pain, and improve overall well-being.

Hallucinogenic Drugs

  • Alter sensory perceptions and can cause visual or auditory hallucinations, emotional shifts, and altered states of reality. Examples include LSD, MDMA, and marijuana.

Classical Conditioning

  • Learning through association between stimuli.
  • Key components include: neutral stimulus (NS), unconditioned stimulus (UCS), unconditioned response (UCR), conditioned stimulus (CS), and conditioned response (CR).

Operant Conditioning

  • Learning through consequences (rewards or punishments).

Law of Effect

  • Behaviors followed by positive consequences are more likely to be repeated.
  • Behaviors followed by negative consequences are less likely to be repeated.

Positive Reinforcement

  • Strengthens a behavior by adding a pleasurable stimulus.

Negative Reinforcement

  • Strengthens a behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus.

Punishment

  • Decreases the likelihood of a behavior.

Shaping

  • Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior.

Token Economy

  • A reinforcement system using tokens that can be exchanged for rewards.

Observational Learning

  • Learning by watching others.

Vicarious Conditioning

  • Learning through observing another person's response to a stimulus.

Latent Learning

  • Learning that occurs without immediate reinforcement and becomes apparent when needed.

Misinformation Effect

  • When misleading information alters an individual's memory of an event.

Flashbulb Memories

  • Vivid, detailed memories of emotionally significant events.

Reconstructive Nature of Memory

  • Memory is not a perfect recording but is reconstructed each time it is recalled.

Anterograde Amnesia

  • Inability to form new memories.

Retrograde Amnesia

  • Loss of past memories.

False Memory Syndrome

  • Creating inaccurate memories due to suggestion, hypnosis, or leading questions.

Semantic Network Model

  • Concepts in memory are linked, and activating one concept can trigger related concepts.

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Explore the fascinating concepts of consciousness, circadian rhythms, and sleep types in this quiz. Learn about how awareness affects behavior and the biological mechanisms that regulate our sleep patterns, including the roles of the SCN and melatonin. Test your understanding of these essential psychological concepts.

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