Psychology Chapter 5 Quiz

PSYCH 1X03 Final Exam Study Notes

• Introduction to Psychology (McMaster University)
• The course covers the scientific method, levels of analysis, different types of research methods, and various topics within psychology, such as classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning, language, memory, attention, and more.

Lesson 1: Intro to Psych & Research Methods

• Thinking fast (reaction) vs. slow (deeper thought)
• Some psychological knowledge is false (e.g., learning styles).
• Perspectives in psychology shape the types of questions asked and answers discovered.
• Psychological processes rely on biology and prior experiences (biases & heuristics).
• We have limited access to reality.
• The scientific method minimizes biases and assumptions in research.
• Steps include theory formulation, hypothesis generation, method selection, data collection, data analysis, report findings, and theory revision.
• Levels of analysis involve different perspectives on the same topic, needing to be considered for accurate theories.

Scientific Approach to Psychology

• Scientific methods explore specific phenomena.
• Parsimony: Simpler theories with greater explanatory power are preferred.
• Natural order: Same effects are attributed to the same causes.

Research Methods

• Generalizability ensures that causes and effects apply across situations.
• Conservatism is skepticism towards new theories until robust evidence.
• Empirical Adequacy means claims and theories are based on observable and testable phenomena.
• Inductive reasoning moves from specific facts to a theory; deductive from theory to prediction.
• Reliability- consistency of a test- giving the same output with the same input.
• Validity- accuracy of a test- measuring what it intends to measure.
• Anecdotal evidence comes from personal or others' experiences.
• Independent variable is manipulated; dependent variable is affected.
• Experimental groups receive the manipulated variable; control groups are compared.
• Within-subject design manipulates the IV on the same participant.
• Between-subject design uses a control group.
• Sampling involves choosing participants.
• Random sampling is essential for representativeness.
• Confounds are variables other than the IV affecting results.

Statistics

• Descriptive statistics summarize data (mean, median, mode, visual displays).
• Frequency distributions show how values appear in a data set.
• Normal distributions are curves balanced on both sides of the peak (bell curve).
• Measures of central tendency (Mean- average, median- center, mode - most frequent).
• Measures of variability (standard deviation- dispersion of scores from the mean).
• Statistical Significance is the probability that results are not due to chance (p-value).
• Inferential statistics use data to make inferences about wider populations (e.g., t-tests).

Lesson 2: Classical Conditioning

• Classical conditioning pairs stimuli (US → UR → CS → CR).
• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): automatically triggers a response (UR).
• Unconditioned Response (UR): natural response to the US.
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): paired with the US to elicit a response.
• Conditioned Response (CR): learned response to the CS.
• Acquisition is the process where the association between US and CS is learned.
• Extinction is the loss of the learned response when the CS is presented repeatedly without the US.
• Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of the CR after a rest period.

Lesson 3: Instrumental Conditioning

• Instrumental conditioning links voluntary behaviours with their consequences.
• Basic principles include stamping in (positive consequences- behaviors increase) and stamping out (negative consequences- behaviors decrease).
• Thorndike's Law of Effect- satisfactory behaviors increase; unsatisfactory behaviors decrease.
• Operant chamber (e.g., box experiment), is used for studying instrumental conditioning.
• Reinforcers increase behavior; punishers decrease behavior.
• Types of reinforcers (primary, secondary).
• Types of instrumental conditioning (reward, punishment, omission, time-out).
• The schedule of reinforcement affects the rate and pattern of learned behaviors.
• Acquisition is the process of learning the contingency between behavior and consequence.

Lesson 4: Problem Solving & Intelligence

• Intelligence is defined as whatever intelligence tests measure and involves the ability to learn from experiences and adapt.
• Hypothetical construct, not directly observable.
• Problem solving strategies include deductive (general to specific) and inductive (specific to general).
• History of intelligence testing: Galton, Binet, Stanford-Binet, Spearman, Gardner.
• Intelligence tests assess cognitive abilities.
• Developmental psychology and intelligence: Piaget's stages (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational).

Lesson 5: Language

• Language- the primary form of human communication.
• The Whorf-Sapir hypothesis proposes that language influences thought and perception.
• Components of language include morphemes (smallest meaningful units) and phonemes (smallest sound units).
• Language development occurs systematically throughout childhood, with milestones including cooing, babbling, and first words.
• Language development is influenced by biological, social, and environmental factors.

Lesson 6: Science of Learning

• Effective learning strategies include practice testing (self-testing), distributed practice (spreading study sessions), and interleaved practice (mixing different topics).
• Research Methods are essential in support of understanding various theories.
• Memory Strategies (e.g., elaborative interrogation, self-explanation, summarization, mnemonics, imagery).
• Long-term learning strategies are more efficient than short-term methods like cramming

Lesson 7: Concepts & Categories

• Categorization- mental grouping of objects or ideas into categories.
• Prototype theory- judging objects by comparing their characteristics and typical representation of the category.
• Exemplar theory- remembering instances of category membership.
• Lee Brooke's Experiment.

Lesson 8: Attention

• Attention- the process of focusing mental resources on specific information, excluding distractions.
• Two models of attention in psychology (automatic, controlled).
• Spotlighted Model- describes the limited nature of attentional capacity in the environment.
• Cocktail Party Effect.
• Visual searching, Selective Attention, Filtering Models (Cherry, Treisman), Stroop task.

Lesson 9: Memories

• Encoding, storage and retrieval.
• Theories of memory (e.g.-multi-store, levels of processing).
• Forgetting- causes and effects.
• Memory distortions, false memories.
• Errors in encoding and/or retrieval.

Lesson 10: Forming Impressions

• Attribution theories- explaining behaviour (situational, dispositional).
• Fundamental attribution error- bias in attributing behavior to internal factors.
• Norm formation- how we are affected and influence social behaviors.

Lesson 11: Influence of Others

• Social Facilitation- improved performance through the presence of others.
• Social Loafing- reduced effort in group settings.
• Bystander effect- decreased likelihood of assistance in emergencies when multiple bystanders are present.
• Conformity- influence of group pressure on behaviour.
• Diffusion of responsibility in a group setting.
• Obedience to authority relates to decision making processes in groups, especially in situations involving social pressure.