Questions and Answers
__________ is any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or practice.
The researcher responsible for discovering classical conditioning was:
Which of the following correctly describes the process of classical conditioning?
When Pavlov placed meat powder or other food in the mouths of canine subjects, they began to salivate.The salivation was a(n):
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By pairing the rolled paper with the swat, Judy's puppy had developed a(n) ____________ response to the rolled-up paper.
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What is the correct order to present the stimuli for classical conditioning?
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What happens when the conditioned stimulus is continuously presented without the unconditioned stimulus?
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John Watson offered a live white rat to Little Albert and then made a loud noise. The white rat served as the ______________ in this study.
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Pavlov discovered classical conditioning through his study of:
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Television advertisers take advantage of the fact that most people experience positive emotions when they see an attractive, smiling person. This association is an example of:
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The current view of why classical conditioning works the way it does, by cognitive theorists such as Rescorla, adds the concept of _____________ to the conditioning process.
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"If a response is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to be repeated. If a response is followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend not to be repeated." This is a statement of:
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Kenra has a new pet cat and decides to modify her cat's behavior by administering pleasant and unpleasant consequences after her cat's behaviors. Kenra is using the principles of:
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A box used in operant conditioning of animals, which limits the available responses and thus increases the likelihood that the desired response will occur, is called a:
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A negative reinforcer is a stimulus that is ___________ and thus ________ the probability of a response.
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The partial reinforcement effect refers to a response that is reinforced after some, but not all, correct responses will be:
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Which example best describes the fixed interval schedule of reinforcement?
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Which schedule of reinforcement should you select if you would like to produce the highest number of responses with the least number of pauses between the responses?
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When a stimulus is removed from a person or animal and decreases the probability of response, it is known as:
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Your child has begun drawing on the walls of your house, and you would like this activity to stop. Which of the following actions would, at least temporarily, decrease the occurrence of the behavior in your child?
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An example of a discriminative stimulus might be:
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In their 1961 paper on instinctive drift, the Brelands determined that three assumptions most Skinnerian behaviorists believed in were not actually true. Which is one of the assumptions that were NOT true?
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Applied behavior analysis or ABA has been used with autistic children. The basic principle of this form of behavior modification is:
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___________ is a type of operant conditioning that is used by humans to bring involuntary responses, such as heart rate and blood pressure, under their voluntary control.
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Cognition refers to:
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The idea that learning occurs, and is stored up, even when behaviors are not reinforced is called:
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A researcher places dogs in a cage with metal bars on the floor. The dogs are randomly given electric shocks and cannot prevent them. Later, the same dogs are placed in a cage where they can escape the shocks by jumping over a low hurdle. When the shocks are given, the dogs do not even try to escape. This is an example of:
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The 'aha!' experience is known as:
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If you learn how to fix your car by watching someone on TV demonstrate the technique, you are acquiring that knowledge through:
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In Bandura's study with the Bobo doll, the children in the group that saw the model punished did not imitate the model at first. They would only imitate the model if given a reward for doing so. The fact that these children had obviously learned the behavior without actually performing it is an example of:
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In Bandura's study of observational learning, the abbreviation AMIM stands for:
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Which of the following real-world situations is using the principles of classical conditioning?
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What is the modern term for a form of functional analysis and behavior modification that uses a variety of behavioral techniques to mold a desired behavior or response?
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What is the use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior?
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What is using biofeedback about biological conditions to bring involuntary responses under voluntary control?
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What is biological preparedness?
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What is classical conditioning?
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What does cognitive perspective explain in classical conditioning?
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What is a conditioned emotional response (CER)?
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What is a conditioned response (CR)?
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What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)?
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What are conditioned taste aversions?
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What is continuous reinforcement?
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What is an example of a discriminative stimulus?
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What does extinction mean in learning?
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What is a fixed interval schedule of reinforcement?
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What is a fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement?
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What is higher-order conditioning?
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What is insight in learning?
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What is instinctive drift?
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What does latent learning refer to?
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What is the law of effect?
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What does learned helplessness refer to?
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What is the learning/performance distinction?
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What is negative reinforcement?
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What is neurofeedback?
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What is a neutral stimulus (NS)?
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What is observational learning?
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What is an operant?
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What is operant conditioning?
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What is partial reinforcement?
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What is positive reinforcement?
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What is a primary reinforcer?
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What is punishment?
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What is punishment by application?
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What is punishment by removal?
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What is a reflex?
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What is reinforcement?
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What are reinforcers?
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What is a secondary reinforcer?
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What is shaping?
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What is spontaneous recovery?
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What is stimulus discrimination?
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What is stimulus generalization?
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What is stimulus substitution?
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What are successive approximations?
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What is a token economy?
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What is an unconditioned response (UCR)?
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What is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)?
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What is a variable interval schedule of reinforcement?
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What is a variable ratio schedule of reinforcement?
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What is vicarious conditioning?
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Study Notes
Learning and Conditioning
- Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience or practice.
- Classical conditioning was discovered by Ivan Pavlov, who initially studied digestive secretions in dogs, leading to his formulation of this theory.
- Classical conditioning involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response after repeated pairings.
- An unconditioned response occurs naturally without any prior learning, such as a dog's salivation upon receiving food.
Types of Responses and Stimuli
- A conditioned response is a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus after conditioning occurs.
- In operant conditioning, positive and negative reinforcements influence behavior; negative reinforcement increases behavior by removing an aversive stimulus.
- A discriminative stimulus signals the availability of reinforcement for a specific behavior, such as a stop sign indicating when to stop.
- Conditioned taste aversions can develop after just one pairing of a taste with a negative reaction (nausea).
Reinforcement Schedules
- Different schedules of reinforcement influence the rate and persistence of behavior:
- Fixed interval schedules reinforce behavior after a set amount of time, e.g., receiving a paycheck every two weeks.
- Variable ratio schedules yield the highest response rates because reinforcement is unpredictable, encouraging consistent responding.
Behavior Modification and Analysis
- Behavior modification utilizes operant conditioning techniques to promote desired changes in behavior.
- Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) focuses on shaping behaviors through reinforcement, commonly used with autistic children.
Cognitive Influences
- Cognitive perspectives emphasize the role of expectancies in learning; for conditioning to be effective, the conditioned stimulus must provide reliable information about the unconditioned stimulus.
- Latent learning suggests that knowledge can be acquired without immediate reinforcement, as demonstrated in Bandura's Bobo doll experiment, where observational learning occurred without rewards.
Key Concepts and Definitions
- Biofeedback allows individuals to gain control over involuntary physiological responses, using visual or auditory cues as reinforcers.
- Insight learning is recognized by sudden realizations, or “aha!” moments, as individuals solve problems creatively.
- Learned helplessness occurs when individuals or animals learn to avoid escape attempts after experiencing stress with no control over outcomes, often linked to depression.
- Continuous reinforcement involves rewarding every correct response, while partial reinforcement fosters greater resistance to extinction.
Emotional and Conditional Responses
- Conditional emotional responses (CER) are emotions learned through classical conditioning, such as fear of certain stimuli or positive feelings toward attractive individuals.
- Expectancy and cognitive processes are integral to understanding how and why classical conditioning works, as they shape the individual's response to different stimuli over time.### Classical Conditioning Terms
- Extinction: Weakening or disappearance of a learned response when the unconditioned stimulus or reinforcer is removed.
- Higher-order Conditioning: Occurs when a strong conditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus.
- Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that does not produce a desired response initially.
Operant Conditioning Concepts
- Fixed Interval Schedule of Reinforcement: Reinforcement is provided after a consistent amount of time has passed.
- Fixed Ratio Schedule of Reinforcement: A specific number of responses is required before reinforcement is delivered.
- Variable Interval Schedule of Reinforcement: The time interval before reinforcement changes for each trial or event.
- Variable Ratio Schedule of Reinforcement: The number of responses required for reinforcement varies with each trial or event.
- Partial Reinforcement: Responses reinforced after some correct actions show high resistance to extinction.
- Positive Reinforcement: Strengthens a response through the addition of a pleasurable stimulus.
- Negative Reinforcement: Strengthens a response by removing or avoiding an unpleasant stimulus.
- Punishment by Application: Involves adding an unpleasant stimulus following a response to decrease that response.
- Punishment by Removal: Occurs when a pleasurable stimulus is removed to diminish a response.
Learning and Behavior
- Insight: The sudden realization of relationships among problem components leading to a quick solution.
- Latent Learning: Learning that is not immediately apparent until its application is beneficial.
- Learned Helplessness: A behavior pattern where individuals stop taking action due to past failures.
- Observational Learning: Acquiring new behaviors by observing and imitating a model.
Behavior Modification Techniques
- Token Economy: A system where desired behaviors are rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for reinforcers.
- Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior to encourage more complex actions.
- Vicarious Conditioning: Classical conditioning that occurs through observing the responses of others.
Psychological Principles
- Law of Effect: Actions followed by pleasurable outcomes are likely to be repeated; those followed by unpleasant outcomes are not.
- Stimulus Generalization: Responding similarly to stimuli that share characteristics with the original conditioned stimulus.
- Stimulus Discrimination: Differentiating between similar stimuli when only one is associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
Other Key Terms
- Instinctive Drift: The tendency for animals to revert to genetically pre-determined behaviors.
- Reflex: An automatic, involuntary response to a stimulus.
- Reinforcement: Any event or stimulus that increases the likelihood of a response being repeated.
- Reinforcers: Objects or events that enhance the occurrence of a response.
- Primary Reinforcer: Naturally reinforcing stimuli that satisfy basic biological needs.
- Secondary Reinforcer: Stimuli that become reinforcing through association with primary reinforcers.
- Spontaneous Recovery: The return of a previously extinguished learned response.
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Test your knowledge of key concepts from Chapter 5 of Psychology. This flashcard quiz covers important terms and definitions, including the principles of learning and classical conditioning. Perfect for students preparing for exams or wishing to reinforce their understanding.