Psychology Chapter 3: Data Types and Limitations
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Questions and Answers

What are the weaknesses of quantitative data?

Reductionist: reduces behavior to yes/no, failing to find out why they behaved that way. Researchers might misinterpret what is said or observed or put detailed answers into a limited number of categories.

What is qualitative data?

Consists of descriptions or words, like in the example of Freud or the participant asking about their dreams in Dement and Kleitman's study.

What are the strengths of qualitative data?

Data can be rich in detail and helps to understand why people behave a certain way.

What are the weaknesses of qualitative data?

<p>There may be problems of interpretation and statistical comparisons can't be made.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is reliability in research?

<p>How consistent the measure of something is.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the advantages of reliability?

<p>If a reliable experimental study is replicated exactly, we would expect to achieve very similar results.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the advantages of a self-selecting sample?

<p>Useful when the research requires participants of quite a specific type or experience.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the disadvantages of a self-selecting sample?

<p>Can't sample is representative of the target population; volunteers may differ from non-volunteers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the advantages of an opportunity sample?

<p>Quick and easy to get participants.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the disadvantages of an opportunity sample?

<p>Participants are unlikely to be representative of the target population.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are snapshot studies?

<p>Studies that capture behavior in a short time frame.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the advantages of snapshot studies?

<p>A quick way to collect data; data likely to be quantitative.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the disadvantages of snapshot studies?

<p>Behavior recorded is limited to that time, in that place, and in that culture.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are longitudinal studies?

<p>Studies that track the same participants over an extended period.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the advantages of longitudinal studies?

<p>Studying the same participant means individual differences are controlled.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the disadvantages of longitudinal studies?

<p>Participant attrition; researchers might become attached to participants.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a strength of the Social Approach?

<p>Ability to understand behavior in social situations</p> Signup and view all the answers

Social knowledge remains relevant even as societies change.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a strength of the Cognitive Approach?

<p>Scientific nature through experimental methods</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a weakness of the Cognitive Approach?

<p>Assumes all cognitive processes are the same</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a strength of the Developmental Approach?

<p>Highlights the importance of early life experiences</p> Signup and view all the answers

Longitudinal studies in the Developmental Approach are quick and easy to conduct.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a strength of the Physiological Approach?

<p>More scientific due to direct observation</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a weakness of the Physiological Approach?

<p>Assumes cause and effect from correlations</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a strength of the Individual Differences Approach?

<p>Offers insights into normality from abnormality</p> Signup and view all the answers

Research in the Individual Differences Approach has high generalizability.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a strength of studying children?

<p>Children behave naively and can be open</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a disadvantage of studying children?

<p>They might misinterpret tasks</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define the key focus of the Nature vs. Nurture debate.

<p>The distinction between inherited traits and learned behaviors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Nature vs. Nurture debate concludes that behaviors are entirely separate.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a notable advantage of using lab experiments?

<p>Replicability due to standardized procedures</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a disadvantage of field experiments?

<p>Difficult to control extraneous variables</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are standardized measures in psychometrics?

<p>Objective techniques for assessment that ensure reliability and validity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What disadvantage exists in self-reports?

<p>Socially desirable responses</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key ethical consideration in psychological research?

<p>Participants have the right to withdraw</p> Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Social Approach

  • Strengths include predicting behavior in social situations and a holistic perspective that considers various levels of explanation.
  • Weaknesses involve potential redundancy of social knowledge due to societal changes and challenges in controlling complex variables.

Cognitive Approach

  • Strengths highlight its scientific nature through experimental methods and focus on the mind as central to human psychology.
  • Weaknesses address the assumption of uniform cognitive processes across individuals and a reductionist view that neglects other influencing factors.

Developmental Approach

  • Strengths emphasize the significance of early life experiences on later behavior, separating learned behavior from inherited traits.
  • Weaknesses point out the time-consuming nature of studies, particularly longitudinal ones, and the risk of overgeneralizing child behavior to adulthood.

Physiological Approach

  • Strengths involve direct observation methods, such as brain activity, offering a more scientific basis with clear cause-and-effect rationale.
  • Weaknesses suggest that findings often indicate correlation without guaranteeing causation and may suffer from reliability but not validity.

Individual Differences Approach

  • Strengths focus on the value of understanding unique individual traits rather than generalizations, providing insights into abnormal behavior.
  • Weaknesses highlight limited generalizability and challenges in defining normality.

Usefulness in Research

  • Useful research can benefit society by providing insights into social behavior and interpersonal interactions.
  • Challenges include potential ethical dilemmas and the necessity of ecological validity in research designs.

Ethnocentric Bias

  • Studying ethnocentric bias reveals cultural diversity and helps identify prejudices and value judgments, promoting cultural sensitivity.
  • Problems arise from over-representative samples which limit generalizability and difficulties in cross-cultural comparisons.

Generalizations

  • Advantages pertain to predicting behavior and simplifying complex interactions.
  • Disadvantages include risks of non-representative sample sizes and the overextension of findings across different cultures.

Psychometric Testing

  • Advantages lie in the objectivity and reliability of standardized measures.
  • Disadvantages include biases from familiarity with tests and the risk of ethnocentric generalizations.

Studying Children

  • Advantages involve gaining insights that can elucidate adult behaviors due to their naïve outlook.
  • Disadvantages include potential miscommunication due to complex experimental language and interpretations.

Studying Animals

  • Advantages center on understanding foundational learning and behavior systems, with the possibility of efficient longitudinal studies.
  • Disadvantages highlight limitations in observational data collection and ethical concerns regarding consent.

Determinism vs. Free Will

  • Strengths indicate that establishing cause and effect promotes understanding and predictability of behavior.
  • Weaknesses critique its negation of free will and its reductionist implications.

Individual vs. Situational Explanations

  • Strengths revolve around discerning behavior determinants and promoting societal understanding of situational influences.
  • Weaknesses involve challenges in isolating variables and recognizing their complex interactions.

Nature vs. Nurture

  • Strengths help clarify inherited versus learned behaviors, providing insights into the effects of genetics versus environment.
  • Weaknesses emphasize oversimplification and the necessity to consider environmental effects alongside inherited traits.

Reductionism vs. Holism

  • Strengths promote a scientific understanding through isolated study of components.
  • Weaknesses highlight difficulties in isolating these components and potential oversight of holistic behavior interpretations.

Research Designs

  • Lab experiments offer controlled environments, aiding replicability but may suffer from artificiality and bias.
  • Field experiments boast ecological validity but face challenges in exact replication and control over variables.
  • Natural experiments present real-world contexts with high ecological validity but lack control over extraneous factors.

Research Design Variants

  • Repeated measures design effectively controls participant variables but can lead to order effects.
  • Independent measures design eliminates order effects but requires double the participants and can be influenced by participant variability.
  • Matched pairs design controls participant differences but relies on effective matching and can be challenging to achieve.

Case Studies

  • Case studies yield rich, detailed data with high ecological validity but often lack quantitative data and generalizability.

Confounding Variables

  • Types include situational, experimenter, and participant variables, all of which can obscure study outcomes.

Control in Experiments

  • Control enhances replicability and predictability but can lead to suspicion among participants and reductionist interpretations.

Questionnaire Types

  • Open-ended enables personal expression while closed formats restrict responses to predefined options.

Interviews

  • Types include structured, unstructured, and semi-structured, each varying in question preparation and conversational flow.

Self-Report Method

  • Self-reports can yield detailed insights but risk socially desirable responses and leading question biases.

Observation Methods

  • Types include controlled, natural, and participant observation, each impacting ecological validity and ethical considerations regarding participant awareness.

Ecological Validity

  • High ecological validity increases the naturalness of behavior in studies, while low validity often arises from artificial conditions.

Ethics in Research

  • Crucial ethics include informed consent, right to withdraw, and confidentiality, with examples highlighting ethical infractions in historical studies.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative Data

  • Quantitative data focuses on numerical analysis for objectivity, while qualitative data offers rich narrative insights, though it may face interpretation challenges.

Reliability in Research

  • Reliability assesses measurement consistency, essential for valid conclusions across varying study replications.

Sampling Methods

  • Self-selecting samples target specific populations but may lack representativeness, while opportunity samples offer convenience at the cost of bias risks.### Snapshot Studies Examples
  • Tajfel's study involved boys taken from school, lasting approximately one hour.
  • Milgram's experiment for participants took around 30 minutes.

Snapshot Studies Advantages

  • Quick data collection allows for efficient research processes.
  • Primarily quantitative data facilitates easier statistical analysis.

Snapshot Studies Disadvantages

  • Limited behavior observation restricted to specific time, place, and cultural context.
  • Quantitative data often fails to provide insights into the reasons behind participant behavior.

Longitudinal Studies Examples

  • Freud documented Hans' behavior between ages 3.5 to 5 years, showcasing development.
  • Thigpen and Cleckley conducted more than 100 hours of interviews over a span of 14 months.

Longitudinal Studies Advantages

  • Individual differences are controlled by studying the same participants over time.
  • Ongoing development tracking reveals changes and patterns in behavior.

Longitudinal Studies Disadvantages

  • Participant attrition may affect the validity and reliability of the study findings.
  • Researchers could develop emotional attachments to participants, possibly impacting objectivity.

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Description

Explore the differences between quantitative and qualitative data in psychology. This quiz will cover the weaknesses of quantitative approaches and provide examples of qualitative data, including notable studies by Freud and others. Test your understanding of how these data types influence research outcomes.

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