Psychology Chapter 3: Conceptual Models
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Questions and Answers

What does the exemplar approach focus on to define a concept?

  • The cognitive processes involved in memory
  • An idealized average representation of the concept
  • Specific examples encountered in the past (correct)
  • The connections between various concepts

How do network models of semantic memory primarily organize knowledge?

  • In interconnected webs through relationships (correct)
  • In hierarchical structures based on importance
  • In linear sequences according to time
  • In isolated units without connections

In the context of network models, what is the purpose of nodes?

  • To represent isolated concepts without connections
  • To represent concepts linked to related ideas (correct)
  • To categorize information based on emotional response
  • To activate distant memories in a linear fashion

What role does spreading activation play in network models?

<p>It helps retrieve related information through connection (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes schemas from scripts?

<p>Schemas include organized knowledge about various topics, while scripts focus on sequences (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the ACT theory, how is knowledge stored?

<p>In networks to aid information processing (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of a script in relation to schemas?

<p>Scripts focus on a specific sequence of events (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which model proposes that concepts are connected and meaning depends on these connections?

<p>Network model of semantic memory (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of typicality on response time when verifying category membership?

<p>Verification is faster for typical members. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes defining features in categorization?

<p>They are necessary features of a category. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the feature analytic approach treat atypical category members?

<p>It applies a two-stage verification process. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which stage of the two-stage process is there a quick yes judgment made?

<p>Stage 1, with high or low overlap of features. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does prototype theory emphasize in category representation?

<p>A central tendency represented by an ideal example. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How are higher probability estimates influenced by typicality?

<p>Stronger with typical items than atypical ones. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic feature in categorization?

<p>A feature that is typical but not required for categorization. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What leads to negation effects in category verification?

<p>Identifying a categorical exception. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common consensus among educators regarding reading instruction?

<p>A compromise between phonics and whole word approaches is best. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT mentioned as a contributor to drawing inferences in reading comprehension?

<p>Predictive analysis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is suggested as a way to enhance meta-comprehension skills?

<p>Monitoring one's understanding while reading. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does decision making differ from deductive reasoning?

<p>Decision making evaluates information and chooses between alternatives. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one method suggested for teaching students meta-comprehension skills?

<p>Encouraging them to self-explain their understanding. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is emphasized as important for making reading instruction enjoyable?

<p>Increasing children's enthusiasm about learning to read. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of reading comprehension involves understanding one's own understanding?

<p>Meta-comprehension skills (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term best describes the process of evaluating information and choosing between alternatives?

<p>Decision making (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes experts from novices in problem-solving tasks?

<p>Experts can consider multiple solutions simultaneously. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does a fixed mindset typically affect an individual facing challenges?

<p>It often results in giving up when faced with difficulties. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common consequence of having a mental set?

<p>It limits the ability to use effective problem-solving strategies. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of functional fixedness in problem-solving?

<p>Using only the original use of an object despite other options. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do metacognitive skills benefit experts in problem-solving?

<p>They enable experts to accurately assess difficulties and manage time. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can stereotypes influence performance in tasks like mathematics?

<p>Through stereotype threat, lowering self-efficacy. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What mindset promotes continuous learning and adaptation?

<p>Growth mindset (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Duncker's candle problem, what is the innovative solution to the task?

<p>Use the matchbox to secure the candle. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the strong hypothesis of linguistic relativity?

<p>Language determines thinking (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of psycholinguistics does phonology primarily focus on?

<p>The way sounds function in a language (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do Chinese numerical names differ from most European systems?

<p>They directly correspond to their written forms (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did Heider interpret the results of the color memory test with the Dani?

<p>Perception influences thought rather than the reverse (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary benefit for children when parents read to them?

<p>Improvement in social awareness (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred about languages with rich color vocabulary, according to Brown and Lenneberg's findings?

<p>They enhance memory accuracy for colors (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these is NOT a version of the Whorfian hypothesis?

<p>Language influences emotion (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which phoneme dimension involves how sounds are produced without vocal cord vibration?

<p>Unvoiced (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is often a characteristic of the weak hypothesis within the linguistics framework?

<p>Language weakly influences perception (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes how children from different cultures differ in numerical understanding?

<p>Chinese numerical names aid statistical understanding (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What factor can help older adults perform better in prospective memory tasks?

<p>Environmental cues (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does explicit recall memory performance compare between older and younger adults?

<p>Younger adults have better performance than older adults (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic of implicit memory performance is observed in older adults?

<p>Minimal age differences, similar to younger adults (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common finding regarding long-term recognition memory in older adults?

<p>It remains stable or declines slowly (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a study, how did older adults recall details from a video compared to younger adults?

<p>They recalled fewer details (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do environmental cues affect older adults in memory tasks?

<p>They enhance memory recall and task completion (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of memory task do older adults typically not struggle with?

<p>Implicit memory tasks (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common misconception about older adults' memory abilities?

<p>Their implicit memory is severely impaired with age (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Response time to verify category membership

The time it takes to verify a statement about a category member, such as "A penguin is a bird".

Inferences based on category typicality

Inferences about a whole category are stronger when based on a typical member than an atypical member.

Prototype theory

The idea that concepts are represented by a central, average instance of a category.

Characteristic features

Characteristics that are commonly found in members of a category, but are not required for membership.

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Defining features

Features that are essential for membership in a category.

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Two-stage process of category judgement

Describes how the level of overlap between features influences the speed of category judgment.

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Feature analytic approach

Explains how typicality affects response time in category judgments by using defining and characteristic features.

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Prototype

An example of a category that is highly representative of the category, like a robin for birds.

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Network Model of Semantic Memory

A network model of semantic memory proposes that concepts are connected to each other in a network, and the meaning of a concept is shaped by its connections. For example, the concept "apple" is connected to concepts like "fruit", "red", "sweet", and "tree", which contributes to its overall meaning.

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Spreading Activation

A cognitive process that involves activating a node in a network, which then spreads activation to other connected nodes. This explains how thinking about one concept can trigger other related concepts in our minds.

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Collins and Loftus (1975)

A type of network model that emphasizes the interconnectedness of concepts and how meaning is derived from these connections. It suggests that thinking about one concept activates related concepts, making retrieval of related information easier.

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ACT Theory (Anderson, 2000)

A network model positing that information is stored in networks that help us process and understand the world. These networks consist of nodes (representing concepts) and links that connect them.

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PDP (Parallel Distributed Processing)

A network model proposes that the brain consists of interconnected processing units (like neurons) that work together to perform cognitive tasks, like learning and memory.

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Schemas

A general mental framework that represents knowledge about a particular situation, event, or person, helping us interpret and understand the world. For example, the schema of "restaurant" includes elements like "tables", "servers", "food", and "orders".

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Scripts

A type of schema that represents a specific sequence of events that typically happen in a familiar activity. For example, the script for "going to a restaurant" includes the steps of entering, being seated, ordering, eating, and paying.

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How Schemas Relate to General Knowledge

General knowledge that encompasses our understanding of the world, including concepts, facts, relationships, and procedures. Schemas help us organize and interpret this vast amount of information.

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Linguistic Relativity

The idea that the particular language we speak influences the way we think about reality.

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Strong Hypothesis (Linguistic Relativity)

The strongest version of the linguistic relativity hypothesis, stating that language completely determines thinking.

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Weak Hypothesis (Linguistic Relativity)

A weaker version of the linguistic relativity hypothesis, suggesting that language influences but doesn't fully determine thinking.

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Weakest Hypothesis (Linguistic Relativity)

The weakest version of the linguistic relativity hypothesis, proposing that language primarily influences how we remember information.

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Phonology

The study of how sounds function in a language.

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Phoneme

The smallest unit of sound that can change the meaning of a word.

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Speech Sound

A single speech sound used to create words.

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Psycholinguistics

The study of language and how it is used and learned by humans. It focuses on the psychological processes involved in language.

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Voiced vs. Unvoiced

The characteristic of a sound produced by the vibration or lack of vibration of the vocal cords.

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Place of Articulation

The location where air is constricted or blocked during speech sound production.

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Decision making

The process of evaluating information and choosing between alternatives, ranging from simple choices to significant decisions. It involves using cognitive principles, including heuristics, to guide the process.

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Deductive reasoning

The process of starting with specific premises and using logical principles to draw a conclusion, with all necessary information provided.

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Whole Word vs. Phonics Debate

A debate about how to teach reading, focusing on whether to prioritize whole words or phonics.

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Whole word approach

An approach to reading instruction focusing on recognizing whole words without analyzing sounds.

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Reading comprehension

The ability to understand and interpret what one reads.

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Meta-comprehension skills

The understanding of one's own understanding and the ability to identify what one doesn't understand.

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Enhancing Meta-comprehension Skills

Strategies to improve meta-comprehension skills, including self-explanation, summarizing, predicting outcomes, describing puzzling sections, and questioning the author.

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Expert Processing

Experts can process information quickly and consider multiple solutions simultaneously. Novices, on the other hand, tend to use slower, sequential thinking.

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Metacognitive Skills

The ability to assess your own thinking and problem-solving abilities. Experts are good at this!

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Mental Set

The tendency to stick to a familiar solution even when a simpler or more effective alternative exists.

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Fixed Mindset

The belief that your abilities are fixed and cannot change. This can lead to giving up when faced with challenges.

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Growth Mindset

The belief that abilities can be developed through effort, encouraging continuous learning and improvement.

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Functional Fixedness

The tendency to see objects only in their usual way, limiting your creativity in problem-solving.

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Stereotypes

Generalized beliefs about groups of people that can impact performance through stereotype threat. For example, the belief that men are better at math than women.

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Stereotype Threat

When awareness of a stereotype about your group can negatively affect your performance on a task.

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Prospective Memory

The ability to remember to perform a future action or task, such as remembering to take medication or pick up groceries.

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Working Memory

Refers to the cognitive system responsible for holding and manipulating information in the short term.

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Environmental Cues

Environmental cues that trigger a memory, like a book near the door reminding you to return a library book.

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Implicit Memory

The ability to remember information that was learned unconsciously or without deliberate effort, such as riding a bike or playing a musical instrument.

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Explicit Memory

The ability to remember information that was learned consciously or with deliberate effort, such as recalling facts, events, or names.

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Recognition Memory

The ability to recognize previously encountered information, such as recognizing a familiar face or object.

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Explicit Recall Memory

Form of explicit memory that involves retrieving information from memory without any cues or prompts. This includes tasks like recalling events, dates, or names.

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Long-Term Memory

The ability to remember information that has been stored in long-term memory.

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Study Notes

General Knowledge

  • Categories are organized around a prototype, the most typical example.
  • Items are categorized based on similarity to the prototype.
  • Prototypicality: high (robin, sparrow) vs. low (ostrich, penguin).
  • Context affects perceived typicality.
  • Prototypes are better and faster to categorize than non-prototypes.
  • Prototypes are common examples, mentioned frequently in the category.
  • Categorizing prototypes is faster than non-prototypes.
  • Semantic priming effect: Faster responses to a word if preceded by a related word.
  • Priming helps with prototypes and hinders with nonprototypes.
  • Family resemblance: Items share overlapping attributes but no single attribute is common to all.

Levels of Categorization

  • Superordinate categories are broad (e.g., furniture, animal, tool).
  • Basic-level categories are moderately specific (e.g., chair, dog, screwdriver).
  • Basic categories are the most common and useful.
  • Basic categories are generally faster to recall than other categories
  • Subordinate categories are more specific (e.g., desk chair, collie, Phillips screwdriver).
  • Subordinate categories have lower-level or more specific features.

Exemplar Theory

  • An exemplar is a specific example stored in memory.
  • Categorization occurs by comparing a new stimulus to stored exemplars.
  • The exemplar approach is different from the prototype approach which relies on an average representation.

Network Models

  • Concepts are linked in interconnected webs.
  • Meaning comes from concept relationships.
  • Nodes represent concepts, and links connect related concepts.
  • Spreading activation flows through the network when a concept is activated.

Schemas and Scripts

  • Schemas are generalized, organized knowledge about situations, events, or people.
  • Scripts are specific sequences of events in familiar activities.

Memory Selection

  • Memory selection: the process of choosing what information to remember.
  • Memories are influenced by existing schemas and expectations.
  • People tend to remember details that align with their schemas, sometimes overlooking details that don't fit.

Memory Integration

  • Memory integration: existing knowledge that helps new information fit into schemas
  • It can lead to remembering details that weren't initially there.
  • Existing schemas affect the accuracy of memories/integration
  • Bartlett's War of the Ghosts study demonstrates how cultural knowledge influences memory.

Language

  • Psycholinguistics is the study of how humans communicate with language, neurologically.
  • Phoneme: the smallest unit of sound in spoken language (e.g., a, k, th ).
  • Morpheme: the smallest unit of meaning in a language, (re-, active, -ate, -ed).
  • Morphology: the study of how morphemes combine to form words.
  • Syntax: the rules for organizing words into sentences.
  • Semantics: the study of meaning in language.
  • Pragmatics: the social rules of language.

Chomsky's Approach

  • Language is partly innate, a universal grammar.
  • Syntax is independent of meaning.
  • Language is modular; processed differently from other cognitive tasks.

Cognitive-Functional Approach

  • Language's main function is to communicate meaning.
  • Cognitive processes, such as memorization and attention, are crucial in language processing.

Lexical Ambiguity

  • Lexical ambiguity refers to a single word having multiple meanings, as in “bank” from a river or finance.

Language Disorders

  • Broca's aphasia: difficulty in producing language (caused by damage to Broca's area)
  • Wernicke's aphasia: difficulty in comprehending speech (caused by damage to Wernicke's area)

Reading Comprehension

  • Two routes to reading:
    • Direct (recognizing words directly).
    • Indirect (sounding out words from sounds).
  • Phonics approach uses sound decoding.
  • Whole language approach emphasizes meaning.

Deductive Reasoning and Decision Making

  • Decision making involves evaluating alternatives.
  • Deductive reasoning (logic) involves starting with premises and concluding to a result.
  • Heuristics are mental shortcuts in decision-making; these are rules of thumb.
  • Representativeness heuristic: judge an event based on its resemblance to a typical case.
  • Availability heuristic: judge an event based on how easily examples come to mind.
  • Base rate fallacy: disregard the frequency of an event when making judgements.
  • Conjunction fallacy: incorrectly assess the probability of the combination of two events.
  • Anchoring and adjustment heuristics estimate answers by starting from a reference point and adjusting, not fully enough.

Framing Effect

  • The framing effect is how the presentation or wording of a decision alters judgements, without fundamentally changing the information.
  • The framing effect's likelihood increases with contextual framing and wording of the question.

Hindsight Bias

  • Hindsight bias is the tendency to perceive events as more predictable after they have happened.

Problem Solving and Creativity

  • Problem solving involves reaching a goal when the solution is not immediately apparent.
  • Problem solving involves the initial state, goal state, and obstacles.
  • People represent problems in different ways (e.g, symbols, diagrams, matrices).

Metacognition (problem-solving)

  • In problem-solving, monitoring or assessing one's own understanding and abilities.
  • Insight problems involve sudden solutions.
  • Non-insight problems have more gradual, incremental solutions.

Culture and Language

  • Linguistic relativity hypothesis: language shapes thoughts and perceptions.

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Description

Explore the intricacies of conceptual models in psychology with this quiz. Test your understanding of exemplar approaches, network models, ACT theory, and categorization. Each question delves into how knowledge and concepts are organized and activated in the mind.

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