Psychology Chapter 16: Motivation

Chapter 16: Motivation

• Motivation is an internal state driving individuals to achieve goals, including initiative, persistence, and direction of efforts toward job performance.

• Process theories focus on how individuals are motivated, emphasizing the steps involved in the motivation process.

• Content theories emphasize individual internal characteristics, focusing on understanding employee needs and how to satisfy them. Key process and content theories are outlined below.

Process Theories of Motivation

• Needs-Goal Theory: Motivation begins with felt needs, transforming into goal-directed behavior aimed at reducing those needs. Individuals who set clear goals focus on relevant activities. Managers must understand individual needs and offer valued rewards, using methods like employee surveys and one-on-one meetings for effective feedback.

• Vroom Expectancy Theory: Felt needs drive human behavior. Motivation strength depends on the individual's desire to perform a behavior, influenced by factors like perceived value and probability of success. Motivation fluctuates as an individual's desire increases or decreases. This theory establishes a direct relationship between behavior to be performed and value attached to the result of that behavior.

• Equity Theory: Employees react when they perceive unfair treatment compared to coworkers, which reduces motivation. Strategies include adjusting compensation, communication, and fairness in work assignments. Examples of these strategies include adjusting salaries, performance-based bonuses, transparent decision-making, open communication, training, and opportunities for advancement.

• Porter-Lawler Theory: This theory is comprehensive, determining effort based on reward value and perceived probability of reward. Task accomplishment is influenced by ability and task perception. Reward value can be assessed by intrinsic and extrinsic factors; further, perceived fairness of rewards greatly influences satisfaction with one's work. This theory is represented by a connecting diagram illustrating value and likelihood influencing performance and satisfaction.

Content Theories of Motivation: Human Needs

• Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: This theory presents a pyramid model of needs, starting from basic physiological needs (food, water, shelter) to higher-level needs like self-actualization. Employees' basic needs must be met before higher-level needs become motivational factors.

• Alderfer's ERG Theory: This theory categorizes needs into existence, relatedness, and growth needs. These categories differ from Maslow, considering existence needs at the bottom, relatedness in the middle, and growth needs at the top.

• Argyris's Maturity-Immaturity Continuum: Humans progress along a spectrum from immaturity to maturity, emphasizing the importance of personal development.

• McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory: Motivation stems from needs acquired through life experiences, including achievement, power, and affiliation.

• Need for achievement - individuals want to excel and set challenging, realistic goals.

• Need for power - individuals are greatly motivated to influence and lead.

• Need for affiliation - individuals prefer cooperative team efforts and maintain social relationships with coworkers.

Importance of Motivating Organization Members

• Unsatisfied needs lead to inappropriate behavior (e.g., withdrawal, aggression). Understanding needs is critical for designing effective strategies. Understanding unsatisfied needs can help managers find ways for employees to use better strategies to resolve the underlying tension and frustration.

Managerial Communication

• Communication is crucial for motivating employees by addressing human needs. Frequent communication is key to effectively leading employees, creating a supportive environment.

Theory X and Theory Y

• Theory X assumes employees dislike work and avoid responsibility.
• Theory Y assumes employees are self-directed, creative, and seek responsibility. Theory Y is typically considered more effective in motivating employees.

Job Design

• Job rotation, enlargement, enrichment, and flextime strategies assist in employee satisfaction. These strategies change or improve various aspects of the work, which can add to the employee's motivation.

Job Enrichment and Productivity

• Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory distinguishes between hygiene factors (work environment) and motivating factors (work itself). Unsatisfactory hygiene factors lead to dissatisfaction, while effective motivating factors increase employee job satisfaction and motivation.

Flextime

• Flextime allows employees to complete their work hours within a standard work week with flexibility. This schedule can aid employees in better scheduling their workday.

Behavior Modification

• This method, developed by Skinner, influences behavior by using reinforcement (positive and negative) and punishment/extinction techniques.

Likert's Management Systems

• Likert's Management Systems categorize leadership styles into four systems, ranging from a lack of trust in employees (System 1) to complete trust and confidence in employees (System 4).

Incentives

• Employees can be motivated by monetary incentives, including ESOPs and gain-sharing, and by nonmonetary incentives that involve promoting employees from within and emphasizing quality.