Psychology Chapter 1 Summary

Chapter 1

• Psychology connects and informs various fields of study
• Psychology is considered a hub science attributed to its connections with medicine, social sciences, and education
• Voluntarism is an approach introduced by Wilhelm Wundt that emphasizes the role of conscious will and choice in determining thoughts, perceptions, and behaviors
• In Wundt's reaction-time experiment, participants chose what to attend to, revealing the role of will in perception
• Structuralism, founded by Edward Titchener, breaks down mental processes into basic components like sensations, images, and feelings
• Describing an apple in terms of its color, smell, and texture, rather than as a whole object, is an example of structuralism
• Introspection is the personal observation of one's own thoughts, feelings, and behavior
• Noticing feelings of anxiety before an exam constitutes an introspective observation
• Functionalism is associated with William James and views behavior as purposeful and contributive to survival
• Enjoying high-fat foods like ice cream because they provided energy for survival in ancestral environments is an example of functionalism
• Behaviorism focuses on observable, measurable behaviors rather than internal mental states, key figures are John Watson and B.F. Skinner
• Pavlov's dogs salivating at the sound of a bell due to classical conditioning is an example of behaviorism
• Humanism is a psychological perspective emphasizing personal growth, self-actualization, and the inherent goodness and potential of individuals with key figures being Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
• Rather than measuring intelligence only through IQ tests, a humanistic psychologist might focus on how well a person realizes their unique potential and how fulfilling their life feels to them
• Biological Psychology examines the physiological bases of behavior in humans and animals
• fMRI is used to study which areas of the brain activate when people are hungry
• Evolutionary Psychology explores how evolutionary principles, such as natural selection, influence behavior.
• Being more sensitive to bitter tastes helps humans avoid poisonous substances
• Cognitive Psychology studies mental processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving
• Studying how people remember lists of words using working memory models is an example of cognitive psychology
• Developmental Psychology focuses on how people grow and change throughout the lifespan
• Studying how children's ability to delay gratification develops with age is an example of developmental psychology
• Social Psychology examines how individuals are influenced by others and by social environments
• Investigating how peer pressure affects teenagers' decision-making is an example of social psychology
• Personality Psychology studies individual differences and characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving
• Assessing whether someone is introverted or extroverted and how that affects their behavior is an example of personality psychology
• Clinical Psychology focuses on diagnosing and treating mental illness and emotional disturbances
• Using cognitive-behavioral therapy to treat depression is an example of clinical psychology

Chapter 2

• A theory is a set of facts and relationships between facts that explains and predicts related phenomena
• Stress and its impact on performance can be explained and predicted in various stress-related tasks using a theory
• A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a situation, usually in 'if A, then B' format
• 'If people watch a 'stress is good' video, then their performance will improve' demonstrates a hypothesis
• A construct is a hypothetical attribute used to explain behavior that cannot be directly observed
• Anxiety is a construct utilized to describe symptoms like fidgeting or sweating.
• An operational definition defines a construct in terms that allow it to be measured
• Measuring anxiety via a self-report scale or physiological response uses an operational definition
• The independent variable is what is manipulated by the researcher to observe its effect
• The type of stress video shown ('stress is good' vs. 'stress is bad') is an example of an independent variable
• The dependent variable is the outcome that is measured to assess the effect of the independent variable
• Work performance or anxiety levels after watching a video are examples of dependent variables
• Descriptive research methods are used to observe and describe behavior, such as case studies and surveys
• Cyberbullying research is documented with a case study on a person who experienced it.
• A survey is a descriptive method where participants answer the same questions
• Asking university students about their cyberbullying experiences constitutes a survey
• A case study is an in-depth analysis of the behavior of one or a few people
• Henry Molaison's memory deficits were studied in depth
• Correlational studies measure the direction and strength of a relationship between two variables
• Social media effects are measured when correlating hours of social media use to depression symptoms
• The directionality problem involves uncertainty about which variable influences the other in a correlation
• Social media and its effects on depression is studied to look at the directionality problem
• The third-variable problem is when a third factor influences both correlated variables
• Social media and its effects are studied by a third variable to gauge usage along with depression symptoms
• Correlation coefficient is a numerical index showing the direction and strength of a correlation
• A correlation of +0.80 suggests a strong positive relationship
• An experiment is a method to test causal hypotheses by manipulating variables
• Stress mindset videos are tested and measured
• Causal claims are statements where one variable causes a change in another
• 'Stress is good' videos cause higher work performance constitutes a causal claim
• Random assignment involves randomly placing participants into different experimental groups

Random Sample, Confound, Validity, Reliability, Statistics

• Random sample has participants are chosen where every member of the population has an equal chance of selection
• A random generator to recruit survey participants helps create a random sample
• A confound is a variable that may influence the dependent variable along with the independent variable
• If one group had more sleep than another, sleep could be a confound
• A quasi-experiment is an experiment that lacks random assignment
• Comparing stress levels in two naturally formed groups constitutes a quasi-experiment
• A field experiment is conducted in a natural setting
• Testing behavior changes from a stress video in a workplace is a field experiment.
• External validity measures the extent to which findings generalize to real-world settings
• A lab finding about stress holding true in a workplace setting shows external validity
• Internal validity measures the degree to which an experiment supports a clear causal conclusion
• Ensuring high internal validity requires controlling all variables except the video message
• Reliability is the consistency of a measure
• Similar results are measured with a stress scale over multiple trials
• Replication is repeating a study to confirm its results
• Repeating a stress video study with a new sample to verify findings constitutes replication
• Descriptive statistics are statistical methods used to summarize data
• Mean and standard deviation of anxiety scores use descriptive statistics
• Inferential statistics are techniques utilized to determine if results generalize to the population
• Different video condition differences use a t-test to evaluate
• The mean is the average of a set of numbers
• The mean test score was 75, for instance
• The median is the middle score in a distribution
• In a dataset [1, 3, 5], the median is 3
• Normal distribution/curve is a symmetrical bell-shaped distribution of data
• Height follows a normal distribution pattern

Samples, Science, Consent, Ethics, and Animal Care

• WEIRD samples are samples from Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic societies, which may limit generalizability.
• Psychology research done only on North American university students constitutes a WEIRD sample.
• Open science is a movement designed to make scientific research transparent and accessible
• Pre-registering a study and publicizing data helps promote open science
• Informed consent is a participant's agreement to take part after being informed of risks and benefits.
• Completing a signing form shows consent before participating in a study.
• The Research Ethics Board is a committee that reviews research proposals for ethical concerns
• Participant confidentially and safety are part of what is ensured
• Debriefing involves explaining the study's purpose and any deception after participation
• The act of debriefing is used after a social influence experiment
• The Animal Care Committee oversees ethical treatment of animal research subjects
• Approving housing and procedures for mice in a behavioral study shows a need for animal care

Neurons and Neurotransmitters

• A neuron is a cell specialized to send and receive neural messages
• Neurons carry signals from your toe to your brain when you stub it
• The axon is the branch of a neuron responsible for transmitting information to other neurons
• Axons extend from the spinal cord to your big toe
• Dendrites are branches from the neuron that receive input from other neurons
• Dendrites receive signals from neighboring neurons
• Myelin sheath is insulating material covering some axons and speeding up neural transmission
• Signals travel up to 20 times faster in myelinated axons
• The cell body is the central part of a neuron containing the nucleus and cell machinery
• Input from processes and dendrites starts output via the axon
• Nodes of Ranvier are gaps between segments of myelin on axons where action potentials occur
• Saltatory conduction to speed up signal propagation can be attributed to the nodes of ranvier
• An action potential is an electrical signal generated in the neuron's axon
• An action potential is triggered when a neuron reaches a certain threshold of activation
• Resting potential is the electrical charge of a neuron when not active
• A neuron's resting potential at rest is negatively charged inside relative to the outside
• The synaptic cleft is the gap between two neurons at a synapse
• Neurotransmitters cross the synaptic cleft and transmit signals
• A receptor is a protein on a neuron that binds to neurotransmitters
• Dopamine influences mood when binding to its receptor
• Neurotransmitters are chemicals that carry messages across synapses between neurons
• Serotonin impacts mood and appetite by sending chemical signals
• An agonist is a chemical that mimics or enhances the action of a neurotransmitter
• Nicotine is an agonist for acetylcholine receptors
• An antagonist is a chemical that blocks or reduces a neurotransmitter's effects
• Beta-blockers are antagonists to norepinephrine
• Reuptake is the process where neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the neuron that released them
• SSRIs, for example, block serotonin reuptake to treat depression

Systems of the Brain

• The autonomic nervous system (ANS) controls involuntary bodily functions like heartbeat and digestion
• The ANS activates fight-or-flight responses during stress
• Basal ganglia refers to Subcortical structures involved in voluntary movement
• Basal Ganglia are impacted in Parkinson's disease, impairing movement
• The brainstem connects the brain to the spinal cord and controls vital functions
• The brainstem regulates heart rate and breathing
• The central nervous system is composed of the brain and spinal cord.
• The central nervous system processes and coordinates bodily functions
• The cerebellum coordinates movement and balance
• Damage to the cerebellum can lead to poor coordination and unsteady movement
• The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the brain and is involved in higher mental functions
• The cerebral cortex handles thinking, planning, and language
• The cingulate cortex is a subregion of the cerebral cortex involved in emotion, decision-making, and autonomic control
• The cingulate cortex activates during experiences of physical pain and emotional distress
• The corpus callosum is a large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres
• The corpus callosum allows communication between the left and right sides of the brain
• The endocrine system refers to a system of glands that release hormones into the bloodstream
• The effects of the endocrine system regulate metabolism, stress, and reproduction
• Executive functions refer to Cognitive processes managed by the prefrontal cortex such as planning, attention, and problem-solving
• Executive functions are utilized when organizing a study schedule or resisting distractions
• The frontal lobe is part of the cerebral cortex and is involved in decision-making, voluntary movement, and personality.
• The frontal lobe is used when solving a math problem or controlling behavior
• Glia are support cells in the nervous system that assist neurons with structural support, repair, and nutrition.
• Glia form the myelin sheath and help maintain the blood-brain barrier
• GABA is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain
• GABA helps prevent overstimulation and is linked to anxiety regulation
• Glutamate is the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain
• Glutamate is important for learning and memory processes
• Serotonin is a neurotransmitter involved in mood, appetite, and sleep regulation.
• Low serotonin levels are linked to depression and anxiety
• Dopamine is a neurotransmitter associated with reward, motivation, and motor control.
• Dopamine impacts Parkinson's disease by inhibiting motor control

Structures, Systems, and Functions

• The effects of Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that impacts muscle control, learning, and memory.
• Acetylcholine impacts Alzheimer's disease
• Epinephrine (adrenaline) and its presence involves a hormone involved in arousal and fight-or-flight response
• Epinephrine increases heart rate during stressful situations
• Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter and hormone important for alertness and arousal
• The effects of norepinephrine are present in the process that boosts attention and is involved in stress responses
• The hippocampus is a brain structure involved in the formation of new memories
• Damage impacts the hippocampus and its ability to form long-term memories
• The hypothalamus regulates homeostasis and links the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland
• The hypothalamus controls hunger, thirst, and temperature regulation
• The HPA-axis is a system that connects the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal glands involved in stress response
• The HPA Axis activates cortisol release under stress
• Neurogenesis defines The birth of new neurons, mostly occurring in the hippocampus
• The effects of neurogenesis are enhanced by exercise and enriched environments
• Neuroplasticity encompasses The brain's ability to change and adapt structurally and functionally
• Neuroplasticity occurs during learning or after injury recovery
• The nucleus accumbens belongs to the brain's reward circuitry, involved in motivation and pleasure
• The nucleus accumbens is activated by addictive drugs and rewarding experiences
• The occipital lobe processes visual information
• The occipital lobe helps you recognize faces and interpret colors
• The orbitofrontal cortex and its structure involves the frontal lobe and regulates decision-making, emotion, and social behavior
• The effects of the orbitofrontal cortex plays a role in evaluating rewards and punishments
• The parasympathetic nervous system is part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body and conserves energy
• The parasympathetic nervous system slows the heart rate after a stressful event
• The parietal lobe processes sensory information related to touch, body position, and spatial awareness
• The parietal lobe helps you locate objects in space
• The peripheral nervous system (PNS) references all nerves outside the brain and spinal cord
• The peripheral nervous system transmits sensory information to the CNS
• The prefrontal cortex refers to the front part of the frontal lobe responsible for executive functions
• The prefrontal cortex is used when making plans or controlling impulses
• The reticular formation is a network in the brainstem involved in arousal and alertness.
• The reticular formation helps you stay awake and attentive
• The somatic nervous system is part of the PNS that controls voluntary muscle movements and transmits sensory information.
• The somatic nervous system helps control hand movement while writing
• The sympathetic nervous system is part of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for action.
• The sympathetic nervous system increases heart rate during fear or excitement.
• The temporal lobe Processes auditory information and supports language and memory.
• The temporal lobe helps you understand spoken words

Structures of the Brain

• The thalamus is a subcortical structure that relays sensory information to the cerebral cortex
• Thalamus functions as a sensory gateway

Structures of Sensation

• Sensation is the process of detecting environmental stimuli or stimuli arising from the body
• Detecting the smell of baking cookies is an example of sensation
• Perception is the process of interpreting sensory information
• Recognizing the smell as chocolate chip cookies is an example of perception
• Psychophysics measures the relationships between the physical qualities of stimuli and the subjective responses they produce
• Measuring how much light needs to change before it registers to perception is psychophysics
• Signal detection theory involves analyzing sensory and decision-making processes to detect faint, uncertain stimuli
• Signal detection theory is performed when a doctor decides if a mammogram shows cancer or not
• Absolute threshold is the smallest amount of stimulus that can be detected
• Absolute threshold is measured when seeing a candle flame 48 km away on a dark night.
• Difference threshold refers to the smallest detectable difference between two stimuli
• Difference threshold is registered when noticing one chip is saltier than another
• Sensory adaptation applies when there is a tendency to pay less attention to a non-changing source of stimulation
• The tendency to pay less attention to a non changing source of stimulation is sensory adaptation.
• Audition is considered The definition The sense of hearing
• An audition is made visible when Hearing a violin during a concert
• Agnosia references the definition Inability to recognize sensory stimuli despite having intact sensory functions
• An agnosia is the state of Being unable to recognize faces despite seeing them clearly (prosopagnosia).
• A binocular cue references the function Depth perception using both eyes
• Binocular cue is utilized when Retinal disparity helps judge distance between objects.
• Bottom-up processing constitutes perception where building blocks are compiled that utilize simple input into more complex perceptions.
• Identifying a shape based on its lines and edges, for instance
• Top-down processing is perception that requires memory and cognitive processes to interpret sensory input building blocks
• Successfully reading a jumbled sentence is an example

Inner Ear Structures

• The Cochlea is a spiral-shaped structure in the inner ear that processes sound
• The Cochlea converts sound vibrations into neural signals
• The Cone is a section of Photoreceptors in the retina that detect colour and fine detail
• The Cone allows you to distinguish red from green
• The Cornea embodies The clear surface at the front of the eye that begins focusing light to the retina
• The Cornea bends incoming light toward the retina
• Depth perception allows for ability to perceive the world, in three dimensions, to judge distance
• Estimating how far away, a car, is while crossing the street requires
• The definition Fovea Area of the retina, specialized for highly detailed vision
• Focusing directly onto words requires
• The Somatosensory homunculus is A distorted map of the body in the brain's somatosensory cortex.
• Lips and hands appear larger due to high sensitivity when assessing the
• Mechanoreceptors perform as Sensory receptors responsive mechanical pressure or distortion
• Tasting sweet, salty, sour describes
• The definition Sensory receptors that detect pain embodies
• Suggests that input from touch fibers can interfere with pain signals, reducing the perception of pain best defines
• Rubbing your elbow after reduces the pain after the body and brain has responded to
• The phrase sense of taste describes or pertains to
• Seeing a series of dots as a continuous line exhibits
• The colored part of the definition the eyes The action expands

Ocular System

• The Lens clear structure behind the pupil that bends light to focus it on the retina best defines
• The eye's lens changes shape to allow clarity
• A monocular is a
• The function an
• the eyes will
• The movement that displays a objects occur
• the definition the
• process of

Definitions of Key Vision and Sensory Terms

• Opponent process is the Theory that we perceive color
• Opponent process explains as the
• The
• the function or process behind The definition
• Dilates allows
• the definition or application
• the
• This action in turn
• The
• The the function

Senses

• The definition Photo receptor, specialized to detect function in dim light can be defined as
• Photo receptors in turn help or allow use. This definition represents

Processing Info

• The translation or the process is completed by
• Sensory messages can be generated
• , there are
• This theory explains to
• The function Help retain
• Vision involves
• vision as a to
• is defined
• a

Development

• occurs is how they
• the function is

Stages of Development by Piget

• occurs
• this is exemplified when

the

Piget's Continued Development

• occurs during
• An

Testing Development

• a
• For instance,
• For example,

Behavior and Response

Child behavior