Psychology: Change Blindness
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Questions and Answers

What is the definition of change blindness?

Tendency not to notice major changes in a scene when the scene is briefly obscured.

Which processing involves the brain making an incorrect inference from perceptual data?

  • Top-down processing
  • Logic
  • Grouping
  • Bottom-up processing (correct)

    • Flat Earth theory proposes that we live on a round Earth surrounded by a giant ice wall.

    False

    A proposition is also known as a ________.

    <p>statement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following words with their category: therefore, because, conclusion, premise

    <p>therefore = hey words because = premise conclusion = conclusion premise = premise</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an argument in logic?

    <p>A list of declarative statements, where one is the conclusion and the others are premises.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two main kinds of persuasive arguments discussed in the content?

    <p>Deductive and Inductive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the form of induction used most often by scientists according to the content?

    <p>Inference to the best explanation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the content, it is impossible to prove with 100% certainty that _ is true.

    <p>T</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Falsifiability is a criterion of adequacy discussed in the content.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the decision theory with its description:

    <p>Expected Value Theory = Should make the choice with the highest expected value Expected Utility Theory (Prospect Theory) = The utility of an outcome is the amount of satisfaction it gives you</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does deductive validity mean?

    <p>The conclusion is impossible to be false and all premises are true</p> Signup and view all the answers

    An argument that is deductively valid always has a true conclusion.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is soundness in an argument?

    <p>Soundness refers to an argument that is deductively valid and has all true premises.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Inductive logic is concerned with rules for testing the ______ of arguments.

    <p>inductive strength</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the type of induction with its definition:

    <p>Enumerative Induction = Inferring general regularity/pattern based on many particular instances Statistical Induction = Predicting based on the likelihood from previous observations Inference to the Best Explanation = Selecting the hypothesis that best explains a phenomenon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is inference to the best explanation important in science?

    <p>It helps in determining the most plausible explanation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Define risk aversion.

    <p>Risk aversion is the tendency to prefer certainty over uncertainty, even if it comes at a cost.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which concept is NOT the same as loss aversion?

    <p>Overconfidence bias</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The endowment effect refers to the phenomenon where an item appears more valuable once it is owned.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following biases with their descriptions:

    <p>Planning Fallacy = Underestimating the time or resources required for a task Echo Chambers = Environment where a person only encounters information that reinforces their own opinions Confirmation Bias = Tendency to seek out information that confirms one's original beliefs Overconfidence Bias = Subjective confidence in one's own abilities greater than actual performance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the adaptation level?

    <p>The adaptation level is the usually the status quo, but can also be the outcome one expects.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following laws states that everything is identical to itself?

    <p>Law of identity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    True contradictions exist.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If a proposition is true in some possible worlds and false in others, it is ________.

    <p>contingent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a faulty form of argument?

    <p>fallacy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following laws of thought with their descriptions:

    <p>Law of noncontradiction = States that true contradictions do not exist Law of the excluded middle = States that a proposition is either contingent or necessarily true Law of identity = States that everything is identical to itself</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some common types of scientific misconduct?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the fallacy where an argument attacks a person's character instead of trying to disprove the statement?

    <p>Ad Hominem</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The fallacy of appeal to popularity involves attempting to prove a conclusion based on the grounds of popular belief.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the fallacy of equivocation involve?

    <p>Using ambiguous terms with different meanings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The main preconditions for evolution by natural selection include variation of characteristics, ____, competition, and survival of the fittest.

    <p>heredity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their descriptions:

    <p>Subjective validation = Interpreting a statement as more meaningful than it really is Barnum effect = Tendency to give high accuracy ratings to vague personality descriptions Meme = Idea that can be subjected to genetic processes like mutation and adaptation Red herring fallacy = Response that diverts attention from the merits of a claim</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of cold reading?

    <p>create the impression that you know many things about a person or spirit</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the aim of a psychic when using confirmation bias in cold reading?

    <p>To give the sitter what they want</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Shotgunning in cold reading involves bombarding the sitter with lots of information, relying on the client to remember the __________ only.

    <p>hits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The intentional stance is useful for predicting the behavior of systems with beliefs and desires.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following strategies with their descriptions:

    <p>Physical Stance = Start by understanding how the system is physically constituted Design Stance = Start by understanding what the system has been designed to do Intentional Stance = Treat the system as an intentional agent with beliefs and desires</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is agenticity?

    <p>tendency to believe the world is controlled by invisible intentional agents</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the tendency to find meaningful patterns in meaningless noise?

    <p>Patternicity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for seeing a pattern that involves the actions of an intentional agent where no such pattern or agent exists?

    <p>Agenticity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term is used for perceiving a significant pattern in vague or random stimuli?

    <p>Pareidolia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main characteristic of an unjustified conspiracy theory?

    <p>Involves a conspiracy by sinister and powerful groups when other explanations are more probable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the tendency to think that big events must have big causes, not chance?

    <p>Proportionality bias</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Blindness

    • Change blindness: tendency not to notice major changes in a scene when the scene is briefly obscured
    • Inattentional blindness: tendency not to notice features of a scene if attention is focused elsewhere
    • Our senses and memories are not always trustworthy and reliable; they can be influenced by expectations and imagination

    Our Senses and Memories

    • Our senses are fallible and can produce misleading information
    • Our conscious experiences are a product of brain processes that operate in the background without awareness or oversight
    • Perception is heavily influenced by expectation and imagination

    Flat Earth Theory

    • The theory suggests that we live on top of a coin-shaped Earth surrounded by a giant ice wall
    • The sun and moon are believed to be relatively close to the Earth and move above it, causing day and night

    Bottom-up vs Top-down Processing in Perception

    • Bottom-up processing: interpretation emerges from sensory data; mistakes in this process can lead to illusions
    • Top-down processing: knowledge or expectations influence perception; mistakes in this process can also lead to illusions
    • Top-down illusions occur when a higher-level concept influences the interpretation of lower-level sensory data

    Memory

    • Memory is not always trustworthy and can be influenced by imagination and expectation
    • We tend to perceive what we want to see, which is influenced by context
    • Memory is malleable and false memories can be easily implanted

    Week 2: Propositions and Arguments

    Propositions

    • A statement that makes a definite factual claim, which can be either true or false
    • Examples: "The sun never sets on the British Empire" or "The moon is made of avocado paste"

    Imperatives, Questions, and Exclamations

    • Imperatives, questions, and exclamations are not statements and are neither true nor false
    • Examples: "Hop ship and then jump" or "What do you have on your face?"

    Arguments

    • A list of declarative statements, one of which is the conclusion, and the others are premises
    • The conclusion states the point being argued for, and the premises state the reasons offered in support of the conclusion

    Logic

    • Logic can't tell us if the premise of an argument is true or false; we need to go out into the world and look

    • Logic can tell us whether the argument's premises provide evidential support for its conclusion

    • A sound argument is deductively valid and has true premises; a cogent argument is inductively strong and has true premises### Types of Induction

    • Enumerative induction: inferring a general regularity or pattern based on the observation of many particular instances

    • Statistical induction: using statistical methods to make predictions about a population based on a sample of data

    • Inference to the best explanation: working out which hypothesis provides the best explanation of a phenomenon, then concluding that this hypothesis is correct

    Importance of Inference to the Best Explanation

    • It is impossible to prove with 100% certainty that a theory is true, so scientists use inference to the best explanation
    • This method is used in science because of the underdetermination of theory by evidence

    Criteria of Adequacy

    • Falsification resistance: scientists should try to falsify their hypotheses
    • Simplicity: simpler hypotheses with fewer assumptions are more likely to be true
    • Scope: hypotheses that explain a wide range of phenomena are more likely to be true
    • Conservatism: hypotheses that are consistent with established theories are more likely to be true
    • Fruitfulness: hypotheses that lead to new discoveries are more likely to be true

    Decision Theory

    • Expected value theory: make the choice with the highest expected value
    • Expected utility theory (Prospect theory): consider the utility of an outcome, not just its monetary value
    • Loss aversion: people tend to prefer avoiding losses over making gains
    • Framing effect: the way information is presented affects our decisions
    • Endowment effect: people tend to value things more highly once they own them
    • Sunk cost fallacy: following through on a course of action because of resources already invested
    • Ilea effect: liking things more if we've expended effort to create them
    • Status quo bias: preferring the current state of affairs over change

    Summary of Prospect Theory

    • Gains and losses are relativized to a reference point
    • Adaptation level: the reference point usually being the status quo
    • Compartmentalizing: having different adaptation levels for different mental accounts
    • Diminishing marginal utility: gains and losses have decreasing marginal utility

    Biases

    • Overconfidence bias: being too confident in our abilities
    • Planning fallacy: underestimating the time or resources required to complete a task
    • Skeptic: someone who vigorously applies scientific methods and good reasoning to get to the truth
    • Pseudoskeptic: someone who calls themselves a skeptic but is actually a dogmatist
    • Confirmation bias: seeking out information that confirms our beliefs and ignoring contradictory information
    • Echo chambers: environments where we only encounter information that reinforces our beliefs
    • Filter bubbles: personalized information environments that exclude information that contradicts our beliefs

    Solipsism

    • Epistemological solipsism: only one's own mental states are certain to exist
    • Metaphysical solipsism: believing in the non-existence of the external world and other people### Logic and Reasoning
    • The law of noncontradiction states that true contradictions do not exist, and no propositions can be both true and false.
    • The law of the excluded middle states that a proposition is either true or false.
    • The law of identity states that everything is identical to itself.

    Propositions and Necessity

    • A proposition is a statement that is either true or false.
    • If a proposition is true in every possible world, it is a necessary truth.
    • If a proposition is false in every possible world, it is a necessary falsehood.
    • If a proposition is true in some possible worlds and false in others, it is contingent.
    • A proposition is logically possible if it is either contingent or necessarily true.

    Scientific Models

    • Scientific models are developed to explain phenomena and make predictions.
    • Good theories tell a story that is true and describe the world accurately.
    • Theories are judged based on their ability to explain observations and make accurate predictions.
    • Experiments must be replicable, and results must be objective and not subjective.
    • Peer review is an essential step in the scientific process.

    Fallacies

    • Fallacies are faulty forms of argumentation.
    • Deductive fallacies include modus ponens, modus tollens, affirming the consequent, and denying the antecedent.
    • Inductive fallacies include unrepresentative samples, hasty generalization, and faulty analogy.
    • Fallacies of irrelevance include ad hominem, appeal to popularity, appeal to force, and appeal to authority.
    • Fallacies of ambiguity include equivocation and amphiboly.
    • Fallacies of unwarranted assumption include division, begging the question, false dilemma, and slippery slope.

    Evolution and Memes

    • The preconditions for evolution by natural selection are variation, heredity, and competition.
    • Memes are ideas, beliefs, or behaviors that can be transmitted and evolved.
    • Memeplexes are collections of memes that work together to replicate.
    • A mind virus is a harmful meme or memeplex that influences a person's behavior.

    Critical Thinking

    • Critical thinkers recognize that most people hold false beliefs and are susceptible to mind viruses.
    • Critical thinkers need to be aware of their own biases and guard against false beliefs.
    • Critical thinking involves recognizing and avoiding fallacies in reasoning.

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    Test your understanding of change blindness, a phenomenon where people fail to notice significant changes in a scene when it is briefly obstructed. Assess your knowledge of this cognitive bias and its implications.

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