Psychology: Behaviorism and Gestalt Psychology

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Questions and Answers

What did Burrhus Frederic Skinner reject in his explanation of human behavior?

Mental mechanisms (correct)

The role of reinforcement

Learning through observation

Responses to the environment

Ivan Pavlov's research primarily focused on which of the following phenomena?

Social learning from observing others

The mental mechanisms of behavior

The problem-solving abilities of humans

The conditioning of dogs to salivate (correct)

What aspect of behavior did Edward Tolman emphasize in his theories?

The purpose and plan behind behavior (correct)

The biological factors influencing behavior

The role of punishment in learning

Direct stimuli and responses

Which criticism was directed at behaviorism regarding its study of complex behaviors?

It does not account for certain mental activities Signup and view all the answers

Gestalt psychology focuses on understanding psychological phenomena as what?

Structured wholes Signup and view all the answers

What did Bandura's findings highlight about the process of learning?

Learning can be influenced by observing others' experiences Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the soma in a neuron?

Perform metabolic and reproductive functions Signup and view all the answers

Which movement arose in the early 1950s as a response to behaviorism?

Cognitivism Signup and view all the answers

What was one of the main methodologies employed by Gestalt psychology?

Observation and experimentation Signup and view all the answers

What are the roles of dendrites in neuronal function?

Receive information from other neurons Signup and view all the answers

Which statement correctly describes myelinated axons?

They are surrounded by a fatty substance called myelin. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of terminal buttons in the neuron?

Release neurotransmitters across the synaptic gap Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes neurotransmitters?

They interact with other substances and affect mood and perception. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary effect of Donepezil on Alzheimer's disease?

It slightly slows the progression but cannot reverse it. Signup and view all the answers

Which brain region is primarily associated with the storage of long-term semantic and episodic memories?

Hippocampus Signup and view all the answers

At what age range does the incidence of Alzheimer's disease increase dramatically?

80-85 years Signup and view all the answers

What type of memory is associated with the motor cortex?

Procedural memories Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of dementia?

Short-term memory enhancement Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the left hemisphere in most individuals?

Language processing Signup and view all the answers

Which structure connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres?

Corpus callosum Signup and view all the answers

What condition might require severing the corpus callosum?

Epilepsy Signup and view all the answers

Which lobe of the cerebral cortex is primarily responsible for higher cognitive functions such as reasoning and problem-solving?

Frontal lobe Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the small grooves in the cerebral cortex?

Sulci Signup and view all the answers

Which function is primarily associated with the right hemisphere?

Understanding context and humor Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a function associated with the left hemisphere?

Spatial orientation Signup and view all the answers

Who is known for identifying Broca's area related to speech production?

Paul Broca Signup and view all the answers

What type of elaboration focuses on relating an item's features to features of items already in memory?

Between-item elaboration Signup and view all the answers

Which component of working memory is responsible for briefly holding visual images?

Visuospatial Sketchpad Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon occurs when subvocal rehearsal is inhibited, leading to poor storage of new information?

Articulatory suppression Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements describes self-schema?

An organized system of internal cues about oneself Signup and view all the answers

What does the phonological loop primarily assist with in everyday tasks?

Verbal comprehension Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the central executive in working memory?

It coordinates attentional activities and governs responses Signup and view all the answers

Which factor enhances memory recall according to the information provided?

Self-descriptive words Signup and view all the answers

Why do people tend to remember fewer long words compared to short words?

Articulatory suppression affects long words more Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Behaviorism

Behaviorism shifted the focus of experimental research from human to animal participants
Burrhus Frederic Skinner believed that all human behavior could be explained by reactions to the environment
Skinner rejected mental mechanisms and believed that operant conditioning could explain all forms of human behavior
Operant conditioning involves strengthening or weakening behavior based on the presence or absence of reinforcement (rewards) or punishments
Ivan Pavlov observed dogs salivating in response to the sight of the lab technician who fed them
Criticisms:
- Behaviorism did not account for complex mental activities like language learning and problem-solving
- Psychologists wanted to understand what happened inside the head, not just behavior
- Studying nonhuman animals with behaviorism was easier than studying humans

Gestalt Psychology

Goal: To understand psychological phenomena as organized, structured wholes. The whole differs from the sum of its parts.
Methods: Various methods like experimentation and observation
Proponents: Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler

Cognitive Psychology

In the early 1950s, the "cognitive revolution" emerged as a response to behaviorism
Cognitivism is the belief that human behavior is explained by how people think

Anatomy of the Cerebral Cortex

Convolutions increase surface area
- Sulci: small grooves
- Fissures: large grooves
- Gyri: bulges between grooves
If smoothed out, the human cortex would cover about 2 square feet
Underlying white matter contains myelinated axons

Hemispheric Specialization

Left and right hemispheres have different functions
Contralateral organization: each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body
Some ipsilateral transmission occurs (e.g., olfactory information)
Corpus callosum: neural fibers connecting hemispheres

Historical Discoveries in Hemispheric Specialization

Marc Dax (1836) observed left hemisphere damage in aphasia patients
Paul Broca (1861) identified Broca's area for speech production
Carl Wernicke discovered Wernicke’s area for language comprehension
Roger Sperry won the Nobel Prize for research on hemispheric specialization

Split-Brain Research

Surgically severing the corpus callosum to treat epilepsy results in two separate specialized “brains”
Reveals distinct functions of left and right hemispheres
Provides insights into language, spatial abilities, and information processing

Left Hemisphere Functions

Language processing (90% of population)
Movement control and skilled actions
Analytical thinking and pattern recognition
Hypothesis generation
Grammatical and phonetic understanding

Right Hemisphere Functions

Spatial visualization and orientation
Face recognition and self-recognition
Understanding context, metaphors, and humor
Practical language use
Holistic information processing

Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex

Four main lobes
- Frontal lobe
- Parietal lobe
- Temporal lobe
- Occipital lobe
Each lobe has specialized functions but also interacts with others

Frontal Lobe

Location: Front of the brain
Functions:
- Motor processing
- Higher thought processes (reasoning, problem-solving, planning)
- Speech production
Contains prefrontal cortex and primary motor cortex

Neuron Structure

Soma (cell body)
- Contains the nucleus of the cell
- Responsible for the life of the neuron
- Performs metabolic and reproductive functions
- Connects dendrites to the axon
- Integrates information received from dendrites
Dendrites
- Branchlike structures
- Receive information from other neurons
- Important for learning
- Formation of new neuronal connections associated with learning
Axon
- Long, thin tube extending from the soma
- Responds to information by transmitting electrochemical signals
- Can split into branches
- Signals travel to the terminus (end)
- Two types: myelinated and unmyelinated
Terminal buttons

Myelin and Signal Transmission

Myelin: white, fatty substance surrounding some axons
Myelinated axons transmit signals faster (up to 100 meters/second)
Myelin distributed in segments with gaps called nodes of Ranvier
Nodes of Ranvier increase conduction speed
Degeneration of myelin sheaths associated with multiple sclerosis

Terminal Buttons and Synapses

Terminal buttons: small knobs at the ends of axon branches
Synapse: small gap between terminal buttons and dendrites of the next neuron
Synapses are crucial for cognition
Rats show increased size and number of synapses after learning
Reduced synaptic efficiency linked to decreased cognitive function (e.g., Alzheimer’s)

Neurotransmission

Signal transmission occurs when terminal buttons release neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters: chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap
Over 100 known neurotransmitter substances
Ongoing research on neurotransmitter interactions with drugs, moods, abilities, and perceptions

Types of Neurotransmitters

Monoamine neurotransmitters
Amino-acid neurotransmitters

Dementia

Loss of intellectual function that is severe enough to impair one's everyday life
Atrophy: decrease in size of the brain, especially in the hippocampus and frontal and temporal brain regions
Plaques: dense protein deposits found outside the nerve cells of the brain
Tangles: pairs of filaments that become twisted around each other.
Symptoms are gradual onset, and the progression is continuous and irreversible.

Alzheimer's Disease

Donepezil (Aricept) may slightly slow the progression of the disease but cannot reverse it; slows destruction of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the brain
Memantine (Namenda or Ebixa) inhibits a chemical that overexcites the brain cells and leads to cell damage and death
The incidence of Alzheimer’s disease increases exponentially with age. About 1% of people between 70-75 years of age experience an onset of Alzheimer’s. But between ages 80-85, the incidence is more than 6% a year.
Early-onset, linked to genetic mutation, before even 50 years of age and sometimes as early as the 20s.

How Are Memories Stored?

Frontal lobe: store semantic and episodic memories
Motor cortex: procedural memories
Prefrontal cortex: short-term memories
Temporal lobe: formation and storage of long-term semantic and episodic memories and contributes to the processing of new material in short-term memory
Amygdala: vital to the formation of new emotional memories
Hippocampus: plays a pivotal role in the formation of new long-term semantic and episodic memories
Cerebellum: plays an important role in the storage of procedural memories

Memory and Self-Descriptive Information

The highest levels of recall occur with words that people consider self-descriptive
Objects can be better remembered if they belong to the participant

Self-Schema

An organized system of internal cues regarding our attributes, our personal experiences, and ourselves.
We can richly and elaborately encode information related to ourselves, much more so than other information about other topics.

Memory Encoding Strategies

Two variables may be of more importance: the way people process (elaborate) the encoding of an item, and the way the item is retrieved later on.
Two kinds of strategies for elaborating the encoding:
- Within-item elaboration: elaborates encoding of the particular item in terms of its characteristics, including the various levels of processing.
- Between-item elaboration: elaborates encoding by relating each item’s features to the features of items already in memory.

Working Memory

Most widely used and accepted model today (Baddeley, 2007, 2009) (Unsworth, 2009)
Holds only the most recently activated, or conscious, portion of long-term memory, and it moves these activated elements into and out of brief, temporary memory storage. (Dosher, 2003)

Components of Working Memory

Visuospatial Sketchpad: briefly holds some visual images
Phonological Loop: briefly holds inner speech for verbal comprehension and for acoustic rehearsal
- Two critical components:
  - Phonological storage: holds information in memory
  - Subvocal rehearsal: used to put the information into memory in the first place
- When subvocal rehearsal is inhibited, the new information is not stored. This phenomenon is called articulatory suppression.
- Articulatory suppression is more pronounced when the information is presented visually versus aurally. Thus, we can remember fewer long words compared with short words. Without this loop, acoustic information decays after about 2 seconds.
Central Executive: both coordinates attentional activities and governs responses.

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Description

Explore the fundamental concepts of Behaviorism and Gestalt Psychology in this quiz. Delve into the theories of prominent psychologists like B.F. Skinner and Ivan Pavlov, and understand the criticisms of these approaches. Test your knowledge on how these psychological schools of thought differ in their understanding of human and animal behavior.