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Questions and Answers
What does the term 'psychology' derive from?
What does the term 'psychology' derive from?
Psychology only focuses on overt behaviors.
Psychology only focuses on overt behaviors.
False
What are the three ways of framing explanations in psychology?
What are the three ways of framing explanations in psychology?
Psychological, Biological, and Environmental
The study of the unobservable aspects of the mind is known as the _____ problem.
The study of the unobservable aspects of the mind is known as the _____ problem.
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Match the following early contributors to psychology with their contributions:
Match the following early contributors to psychology with their contributions:
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Who is associated with the theory of Operant Conditioning?
Who is associated with the theory of Operant Conditioning?
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Cognitive Psychology focuses solely on observable behavior.
Cognitive Psychology focuses solely on observable behavior.
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What is the primary function of Motor Neurons?
What is the primary function of Motor Neurons?
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______ is the process by which a stimulus in the environment elicits a physical response.
______ is the process by which a stimulus in the environment elicits a physical response.
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Match the psychologist to their area of study:
Match the psychologist to their area of study:
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What is the function of Interneurons?
What is the function of Interneurons?
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Neuroscience is primarily focused on the study of behavior.
Neuroscience is primarily focused on the study of behavior.
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What term describes the state where there is a difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of a neuron?
What term describes the state where there is a difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of a neuron?
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The two systems that make up the nervous system are the ______ and ______ nervous systems.
The two systems that make up the nervous system are the ______ and ______ nervous systems.
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Which psychological approach studies how culture influences behavior?
Which psychological approach studies how culture influences behavior?
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What does dualism propose regarding the mind and body?
What does dualism propose regarding the mind and body?
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Philosophical materialism states that mental events are independent of physical events.
Philosophical materialism states that mental events are independent of physical events.
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Who is considered the 'Father of Modern Psychology'?
Who is considered the 'Father of Modern Psychology'?
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___ is the philosophical approach that emphasizes knowledge derived from sensory experience.
___ is the philosophical approach that emphasizes knowledge derived from sensory experience.
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Match the philosophers to their contributions:
Match the philosophers to their contributions:
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What was the focus of functionalism as introduced by William James?
What was the focus of functionalism as introduced by William James?
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Psychoanalysis, founded by Sigmund Freud, emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind.
Psychoanalysis, founded by Sigmund Freud, emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind.
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Which conditioning is associated with Ivan Pavlov?
Which conditioning is associated with Ivan Pavlov?
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___ is the term for the observable actions studied in behaviorism.
___ is the term for the observable actions studied in behaviorism.
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What does philosophical idealism suggest about perception?
What does philosophical idealism suggest about perception?
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What describes the sodium-potassium pump's role in maintaining cell function?
What describes the sodium-potassium pump's role in maintaining cell function?
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Action potentials decrease in size as they travel down the axon.
Action potentials decrease in size as they travel down the axon.
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What is the primary function of neurotransmitters?
What is the primary function of neurotransmitters?
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The _____ is the fatty insulating layer that speeds up signal transmission in neurons.
The _____ is the fatty insulating layer that speeds up signal transmission in neurons.
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Match the following neurotransmitters with their effects:
Match the following neurotransmitters with their effects:
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Which type of channel is responsive to changes in electrical potential?
Which type of channel is responsive to changes in electrical potential?
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Hyperpolarization decreases the electrical charge across a membrane.
Hyperpolarization decreases the electrical charge across a membrane.
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What are the two types of neural summation?
What are the two types of neural summation?
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In the _____ refractory period, a new action potential cannot occur regardless of stimulation strength.
In the _____ refractory period, a new action potential cannot occur regardless of stimulation strength.
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Which part of the nervous system is responsible for voluntary muscle control?
Which part of the nervous system is responsible for voluntary muscle control?
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Glial cells play no role in supporting neurons.
Glial cells play no role in supporting neurons.
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What component of the nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord?
What component of the nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord?
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Excitation involves excitatory neurotransmitters that cause partial _____ of the neuron.
Excitation involves excitatory neurotransmitters that cause partial _____ of the neuron.
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Match the following terms with their definitions:
Match the following terms with their definitions:
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Which of the following nitrogen bases is NOT found in DNA?
Which of the following nitrogen bases is NOT found in DNA?
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Natural selection operates only on traits that are heritable.
Natural selection operates only on traits that are heritable.
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What is a phenotype?
What is a phenotype?
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The basic unit of hereditary information is called a ______.
The basic unit of hereditary information is called a ______.
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Match the following terms with their definitions:
Match the following terms with their definitions:
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What is the heritability coefficient?
What is the heritability coefficient?
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Epigenetics refers to changes in gene expression that are caused exclusively by genetic information.
Epigenetics refers to changes in gene expression that are caused exclusively by genetic information.
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Define polygenic transmission.
Define polygenic transmission.
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In somatic cells, individuals possess ______ pairs of chromosomes.
In somatic cells, individuals possess ______ pairs of chromosomes.
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Which of the following best describes natural selection?
Which of the following best describes natural selection?
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What technique uses a magnetic field to modify brain activity?
What technique uses a magnetic field to modify brain activity?
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The amygdala helps in regulating metabolic rate.
The amygdala helps in regulating metabolic rate.
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What does fMRI detect in relation to brain activity?
What does fMRI detect in relation to brain activity?
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The ______ gland secretes melatonin to regulate sleep cycles.
The ______ gland secretes melatonin to regulate sleep cycles.
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Match the following brain structures with their functions:
Match the following brain structures with their functions:
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What is the primary purpose of the spinal cord?
What is the primary purpose of the spinal cord?
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Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) is primarily used to detect electrical activity in the brain.
Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) is primarily used to detect electrical activity in the brain.
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What role does the thalamus play in the brain's processing of sensory information?
What role does the thalamus play in the brain's processing of sensory information?
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The ______ measures electrical activity in the brain using electrodes.
The ______ measures electrical activity in the brain using electrodes.
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Match the parts of the hindbrain with their functions:
Match the parts of the hindbrain with their functions:
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Which brain region is involved in voluntary movement control?
Which brain region is involved in voluntary movement control?
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The adrenal glands primarily regulate sugar metabolism.
The adrenal glands primarily regulate sugar metabolism.
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What type of scan provides a 2D picture of the brain based on X-ray absorption?
What type of scan provides a 2D picture of the brain based on X-ray absorption?
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The ______ lobe is primarily associated with visual processing.
The ______ lobe is primarily associated with visual processing.
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Match the hormones with their respective glands:
Match the hormones with their respective glands:
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Study Notes
Terminology and Considerations
- History of psychology is influenced by biases from gender norms, sexism, and racism.
- "Psychology" combines Greek words for "spirit/soul" (psyche) and "study" (logos).
Defining Psychology
- Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior.
- Mind refers to internal (covert) behaviors; behavior refers to external (overt) actions.
Goals of Psychology
- Measure and describe behavior: Identify behaviors, conditions, and frequency.
- Explain and predict behavior: Understand triggers and reasons for behaviors.
- Modify behavior: Increase desirable behavior and decrease undesirable behavior.
Explanatory Frameworks
- Psychological explanations focus on internal thoughts and emotions.
- Biological explanations consider genes, hormones, and physiological processes.
- Environmental explanations emphasize the impact of surroundings.
Philosophical Roots
- Ancient Greek philosophers examined morality and human nature.
- Ali ibn al-‘Abbas al-majusi contributed to understanding mind-body interactions.
Mind-Body Problem
- The challenge of studying the unobservable mind and its relationship with behavior.
- Dualism (Rene Descartes): Mind as a separate, non-physical entity; body as physical.
- Monism (Thomas Hobbes): Mind is the product of brain activity; no separation.
Realism vs. Idealism
- Realism (John Locke): Perception is based on sensory information.
- Idealism (Immanuel Kant): Perception is shaped by innate knowledge and experience.
Empiricism vs. Nativism
- Empiricism: Knowledge is gained through experience.
- Nativism: Knowledge is innate and present from birth.
Structuralism and Functionalism
- Structuralism (Wilhelm Wundt): Uses scientific techniques to analyze the mind's structures.
- Functionalism (William James): Investigates the purpose of mental processes, influenced by Darwin’s evolution theory.
Modern Perspectives on Psychology
- Psychodynamic: Focuses on unconscious influences (Sigmund Freud).
- Behaviorism: Studies observable behavior and stimulus-response relationships (Pavlov, Watson, Skinner).
- Gestalt Psychology: Examines perception and how the mind organizes stimuli (Wertheimer).
- Developmental Psychology: Analyzes changes in psychological phenomena over time (Jean Piaget).
- Social Psychology: Investigates group behavior and social influences (Kurt Lewin, Asch, Allport).
- Cognitive Psychology: Focuses on mental processes; arose in the 1960s as a counter to behaviorism.
- Evolutionary Psychology: Examines how natural selection affects mental abilities.
- Neuroscience: Studies the brain's functions; includes cognitive and behavioral neuroscience.
- Cultural Psychology: Explores the effects of culture on behavior.
The Biological Component
- Neurons: Specialized cells for transmitting information in the nervous system; essential for behavior.
- Types of neurons: Motor neurons (commands to muscles), sensory neurons (inputs from the body), and interneurons (connect neurons).
Neuron Functionality
- Resting Potential: Difference in electrical charge across the neuron's membrane.
- Action Potential: All-or-nothing electrical impulse that travels down the axon.
- Myelin Sheath: Insulates axons, increasing signal transmission speed.
The Synapse and Neurotransmitters
- Synapse: Space between neurons where neurotransmitters are released.
- Types of neurotransmitters: Excitatory (increase activity) and inhibitory (decrease activity).
- Drugs: Agonists enhance receptor activity; antagonists reduce it.
The Nervous System
- Central Nervous System: Comprises the brain and spinal cord.
- Peripheral Nervous System: Includes somatic (voluntary control) and autonomic (involuntary processes) systems.
- Directional Terms: Dorsal, ventral, anterior, posterior, superior, inferior, lateral, medial define positions in relation to body orientation.
- Distinction: A nerve is a bundle of axons in the PNS; a tract is a bundle of axons in the CNS.
Early Brain Study Advances
- Development of microscopes and staining techniques improved understanding of neuron structures and functions.### Brain Activity Recording Techniques
- Early 1900s saw advancements in methods to record brain electrical activity.
- Damage studies involve lesioning specific brain areas to alleviate symptoms.
- Prefrontal lobotomy disconnects frontal lobe from thalamus, with potential side effects on personality and behavior.
- Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) uses a metal coil to create magnetic fields, modifying brain activity; served as both a research and treatment tool.
- Computerized Tomography (CT) generates enhanced 2D images of the brain using differential X-ray absorption, with low resolution of fine structures.
- Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) employs strong magnetic fields and radio waves to produce clearer images of soft tissues than CT scans.
- Functional MRI (fMRI) monitors blood oxygenation and flow, linked to neural activity; superior spatial and temporal resolution compared to PET scans.
- Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) visualizes water movement to assess neural tract connectivity with high spatial resolution.
- Positron Emission Tomography (PET) tracks radioactive material in the bloodstream, indicating brain activity through blood flow.
- Near Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) measures blood oxygen changes through the skull, indirectly assessing brain activity.
- Electroencephalography (EEG) records electrical activity from electrodes, offering excellent temporal resolution in milliseconds.
Structure of the Central Nervous System
- Spinal cord bundles carry information between the brain and body, with dorsal horns containing sensory nerve endings and ventral horns housing efferent nerve cell bodies.
- The brain is divided into three main regions: hindbrain (vital functions), midbrain (reflex actions), and forebrain (complex functions).
Hindbrain Functions
- Medulla regulates heart rate, circulation, and breathing, while coordinating digestion.
- Pons serves as a relay station between brain regions, coordinating signals for the cerebellum.
- Cerebellum is crucial for coordination, balance, muscle tone, and procedural memory.
Midbrain Components
- Reticular formation regulates awareness, attention, and filters stimuli; it plays a role in arousal and sleep.
- Superior and inferior colliculi are involved in visual and auditory processing, respectively.
Forebrain Features
- Basal ganglia control both voluntary and involuntary movement, comprising structures like the caudate nucleus and globus pallidus.
- Limbic system influences emotion, memory and sexual behavior; includes the amygdala (fight-or-flight response), hippocampus (memory formation), and cingulate gyrus (attention and focus).
- Thalamus relays sensory information to the cerebral cortex while filtering input.
- Hypothalamus regulates autonomic functions, affecting hunger, temperature, and aggression.
Geography of the Brain
- Cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the brain, divided into four lobes: frontal (executive function), parietal (sensory integration), temporal (auditory processing), and occipital (visual).
- Surface features include gyri (ridges), sulci (grooves), and large fissures that define brain regions.
Genetics Overview
- DNA is composed of nucleotides (A, T, G, C); genes are basic hereditary units instructing protein creation.
- Genotype indicates an individual’s genetic blueprint, while phenotype reflects expressed traits influenced by genetics and environment.
Genetic Mechanisms
- Polygenic inheritance involves multiple gene pairs affecting a single trait; epigenetics refers to lasting gene expression changes not coded in the DNA.
- DNA methylation and histone modification serve as mechanisms of gene regulation.
Evolutionary Principles
- Evolution defines gradual genetic trait changes in populations; natural selection favors traits enhancing survival and reproduction.
- Variability due to mutations can lead to beneficial, neutral, or harmful changes in traits and organisms.
Heritability and Genetic Relatedness
- Genetic relatedness measures the proportion of shared genetics between relatives (e.g., parent-child = 50%).
- Heritability assesses how much genetic differences contribute to trait variation in a population.
- Family, adaptation, and twin studies elucidate genetic vs. environmental influences on traits, providing insights into inheritance patterns.
Key Historical Contributions
- Francis Galton conducted pioneering twin studies, establishing genetic contributions to traits by comparing monozygotic and dizygotic twins.
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Description
Test your knowledge on the fundamentals of psychology, including its origins, key concepts, and early contributors. This quiz will challenge your understanding of both observable behaviors and the unobservable aspects of the mind. Perfect for beginners in psychology.
