Psychology: Attention and Perception

Attention

• Selective focus on specific stimuli or tasks while ignoring others
• Types:
  • Sustained attention: maintaining focus over a prolonged period
  • Selective attention: focusing on specific stimuli or tasks
  • Alternating attention: switching focus between two or more tasks
  • Divided attention: processing multiple sources of information simultaneously

Perception

• Process of interpreting and organizing sensory information
• Influenced by:
  • Bottom-up processing: analysis of raw sensory data
  • Top-down processing: use of prior knowledge and expectations to shape perception
  • Prior experiences and expectations
  • Attention and motivation

Memory

• Storage and retrieval of information
• Types:
  • Sensory memory: brief storage of sensory information
  • Short-term memory: limited capacity, information forgotten unless rehearsed
  • Long-term memory: permanent storage of information
  • Working memory: temporary storage and manipulation of information

Learning

• Acquisition of new knowledge, skills, or behaviors
• Types:
  • Classical conditioning: association of stimuli with responses
  • Operant conditioning: consequences of behavior influence learning
  • Social learning: learning through observation and imitation

Language

• System of communication using symbols, words, and rules
• Components:
  • Phonology: sound system
  • Morphology: structure of words
  • Syntax: rules of sentence formation
  • Semantics: meaning of words and sentences

Problem-Solving

• Cognitive process of identifying and resolving problems
• Strategies:
  • Algorithmic approach: step-by-step procedure
  • Heuristic approach: rules of thumb and mental shortcuts
  • Insight approach: sudden understanding of a solution

Decision-Making

• Process of selecting a course of action
• Influenced by:
  • Cognitive biases: mental shortcuts that can lead to errors
  • Emotional factors: emotional state and personal values
  • Contextual factors: environmental and social influences

Attention

• Attention is the selective focus on specific stimuli or tasks while ignoring others.
• There are four types of attention: sustained, selective, alternating, and divided attention.
• Sustained attention involves maintaining focus over a prolonged period.
• Selective attention involves focusing on specific stimuli or tasks.
• Alternating attention involves switching focus between two or more tasks.
• Divided attention involves processing multiple sources of information simultaneously.

Perception

• Perception is the process of interpreting and organizing sensory information.
• Perception is influenced by bottom-up processing, which involves the analysis of raw sensory data.
• Top-down processing, which involves the use of prior knowledge and expectations, also influences perception.
• Prior experiences and expectations, as well as attention and motivation, also shape perception.

Memory

• Memory refers to the storage and retrieval of information.
• There are four types of memory: sensory, short-term, long-term, and working memory.
• Sensory memory involves the brief storage of sensory information.
• Short-term memory has limited capacity and information is forgotten unless rehearsed.
• Long-term memory involves the permanent storage of information.
• Working memory involves the temporary storage and manipulation of information.

Learning

• Learning is the acquisition of new knowledge, skills, or behaviors.
• There are three types of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning.
• Classical conditioning involves the association of stimuli with responses.
• Operant conditioning involves the consequences of behavior influencing learning.
• Social learning involves learning through observation and imitation.

Language

• Language is a system of communication using symbols, words, and rules.
• Language has four components: phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics.
• Phonology refers to the sound system of language.
• Morphology refers to the structure of words.
• Syntax refers to the rules of sentence formation.
• Semantics refers to the meaning of words and sentences.

Problem-Solving

• Problem-solving is the cognitive process of identifying and resolving problems.
• There are three strategies for problem-solving: algorithmic, heuristic, and insight.
• The algorithmic approach involves a step-by-step procedure.
• The heuristic approach involves the use of rules of thumb and mental shortcuts.
• The insight approach involves a sudden understanding of a solution.

Decision-Making

• Decision-making is the process of selecting a course of action.
• Decision-making is influenced by cognitive biases, which can lead to errors.
• Emotional factors, such as emotional state and personal values, also influence decision-making.
• Contextual factors, such as environmental and social influences, also play a role in decision-making.

Cognitive Processes

Memory

• Three types of memory: Sensory Memory (brief storage of sensory info), Short-Term Memory (limited capacity, info held for seconds to minutes), and Long-Term Memory (permanent storage, info held indefinitely)
• Memory stages: Encoding (info enters memory), Storage (info is retained), and Retrieval (info is accessed)
• Levels of Processing model: distinguishes between shallow (structural) and deep (semantic) processing
• Atkinson-Shiffrin model: a multi-store model of memory that includes sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory

Language Processing

• Four language components: Phonology (sound system of language), Morphology (structure of words), Syntax (sentence structure), and Semantics (meaning of language)
• Language processing stages: Perception (sound waves are detected), Encoding (sound waves are interpreted), and Comprehension (meaning is extracted)
• Interactive Activation model: a model of language processing that involves parallel processing of language components
• Good Enough model: a model of language processing that involves heuristic processing and is more efficient but less accurate

Problem-Solving

• Two types of problems: Well-Defined Problems (clear goals, solutions, and constraints) and Ill-Defined Problems (unclear goals, solutions, or constraints)
• Problem-solving strategies: Analogies (using past experiences to solve new problems), Divide and Conquer (breaking down complex problems), and Working Backwards (starting with the goal and working backwards)
• Factors influencing problem-solving: Motivation (incentives and motivation influence problem-solving performance) and Expertise (domain-specific knowledge and experience impact problem-solving ability)