Psychology as a Science
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Questions and Answers

What did Santiago Ramon y Cajal discover about neurons?

  • Neurons are only found in the brain.
  • Neurons cannot transmit signals.
  • Neurons are continuous cells with no space in between.
  • Neurons are separate and distinct units. (correct)

Which type of neuron is responsible for sending commands from the brain to muscles and glands?

  • Interneurons
  • Support neurons
  • Sensory neurons
  • Motor neurons (correct)

During the depolarization phase of an action potential, which ions primarily enter the axon?

  • Cl- ions
  • K+ ions
  • Na+ ions (correct)
  • Ca2+ ions

What is the primary function of glial cells in the nervous system?

<p>To provide support and insulation to neurons (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during the repolarization phase of an action potential?

<p>K+ ions leave the axon. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of conduction allows action potentials to travel faster along myelinated axons?

<p>Saltatory conduction (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter plays a significant role in muscle actions, such as walking and talking?

<p>Acetylcholine (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process involves the removal of neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft?

<p>Reuptake (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What neurotransmitter is primarily associated with large muscle movement and motivation?

<p>Dopamine (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the nervous system is responsible for involuntary actions and maintaining homeostasis?

<p>Autonomic Nervous System (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the hindbrain's cerebellum?

<p>Balance and coordination (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which scanning technique is known for visualizing brain activity based on glucose consumption?

<p>PET scan (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The thalamus is primarily known to function as what in the brain?

<p>Relay station for sensory information (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key function of GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)?

<p>Promote relaxation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which lobe of the cerebral cortex is primarily responsible for processing visual information?

<p>Occipital lobe (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the corpus callosum connect?

<p>The left and right hemispheres of the brain (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process involves the transmission of information from the muscles and skin to the central nervous system?

<p>Afferent signaling (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What describes a common function of the left hemisphere of the brain?

<p>Language processing (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which system is primarily concerned with hormone regulation in the body?

<p>Endocrine system (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary consequence of damage to the occipital lobes?

<p>Blindness (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the brain is vital for the regulation and maintenance of consciousness?

<p>Reticular formation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant disadvantage of case studies?

<p>They may not provide representative samples. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main focus of postconventional morality?

<p>Decisions based on universal ethical principles (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which prenatal stage involves the development of major organs beginning to function?

<p>Fetal stage (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following processes is associated with sensation?

<p>Detecting physical stimuli (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What factor is most associated with increased risk of genetic abnormalities in a fetus?

<p>Maternal age (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of processing builds a perceptual experience from smaller pieces of information?

<p>Bottom up processing (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During which phase of neuronal development do neurons begin to form connections?

<p>Synapse formation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which attachment style is characterized by caregivers who are unresponsive to the infant's needs?

<p>Insecure attachment (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the rods in the retina?

<p>Detecting motion in low light conditions (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common outcome for infants with a secure attachment style?

<p>More self-confidence (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'absolute threshold' refer to?

<p>The minimum level of stimulus required for detection at least 50% of the time (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do the sensitive ends of olfactory neurons detect?

<p>Molecules dissolved in fluid on mucus membranes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of reflex is considered permanent in newborns?

<p>Swallowing reflex (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of light-sensitive cells require a higher level of light to function?

<p>Cones (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which parenting style is characterized by strict rules and high demands?

<p>Authoritarian (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What significant event occurs during the 'identity vs role confusion' stage in Erikson's theory?

<p>Children begin to experiment with different identities. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the ear amplifies sound waves?

<p>Ossicles (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the typical age range when separation anxiety peaks in infants?

<p>1 year (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the place theory of pitch perception suggest?

<p>Different places on the basilar membrane respond to different frequencies (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon illustrates sensory adaptation?

<p>Reduced sensitivity to a continuous odor (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which teratogen can cause serious developmental issues such as fetal alcohol syndrome?

<p>Alcohol (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the rooting reflex in newborns help them to develop?

<p>Feeding (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the primary components of color vision according to the trichromatic theory?

<p>Red, green, and blue cones (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which function does the lens of the eye serve?

<p>Helps focus light onto the retina (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does temperament play in the development of attachment?

<p>Easy-going temperaments often lead to secure attachments. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term psychology specifically refer to?

<p>The scientific study of both behavior and mental processes. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which psychologist is known as the father of modern psychology?

<p>Wilhem Wundt (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What key concept differentiates structuralism from functionalism in psychology?

<p>Structuralism seeks to identify the elements of consciousness, while functionalism examines the purpose of mental processes. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did behaviorism change the focus of psychology following its rise?

<p>It prioritized the study of observable behavior over internal mental states. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was a major contribution of Sigmund Freud to psychology?

<p>Psychoanalysis and the study of unconscious processes. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role did introspection play in the study of psychology during structuralism?

<p>It was a primary method used to explore conscious experiences. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the main focus of functionalism?

<p>Examining how mental processes help organisms adapt to their environment. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What significant approach did John B. Watson advocate in psychology?

<p>Emphasizing the objective measurement of overt behavior. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which concept is NOT associated with Sigmund Freud?

<p>Behavioral conditioning (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was a critical view held by functionalists that differed from structuralists?

<p>It was necessary to study a wider variety of mental processes. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does operant conditioning primarily focus on?

<p>The consequences that follow a behavior (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In humanistic psychology, what is considered essential for self-actualization?

<p>Meeting basic needs first (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which movement focused on the perception of objects as whole units rather than individual components?

<p>Gestalt psychology (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did cognitive psychology emerge in the 1950s and 1960s?

<p>By incorporating advancements in computer technology (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does evolutionary psychology aim to understand?

<p>The evolution of behavior and mental processes (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary focus of developmental psychology?

<p>Changes in behaviors and mental processes over the life span (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does clinical psychology primarily deal with?

<p>The treatment of mental health disorders (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'pure science' in psychology refer to?

<p>Investigation for the sake of knowledge and understanding (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which psychologist is known for opposing behaviorist views on language development?

<p>Noam Chomsky (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which area of psychology focuses on the influence of cultural factors on development?

<p>Sociocultural psychology (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the hierarchy of needs proposed by Maslow signify?

<p>Basic needs take precedence over higher-level needs (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of psychology does industrial/organizational psychology focus on?

<p>Business applications of psychological principles (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT an area of specialization in psychology?

<p>Quantum psychology (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary concept in Piaget's theory that refers to a unit of knowledge representing a specific activity or object?

<p>Schema (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which cognitive development stage is characterized by egocentrism and the inability to understand conservation?

<p>Preoperational (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

At what stage in Kohlberg's moral development does a child focus on avoiding punishment?

<p>Stage 1: Act to avoid punishment (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What process occurs when a child changes their existing schemas to incorporate new information?

<p>Accommodation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Vygotsky emphasize as crucial for cognitive development?

<p>Private speech (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During which stage of development do children typically begin to reason abstractly?

<p>Formal Operational (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the term 'object permanence'?

<p>Understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes Level 2 of Kohlberg's moral development?

<p>Conformity to authority (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does centration refer to in cognitive development?

<p>Focusing on one feature while ignoring others (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between Piaget and Vygotsky's theories of cognitive development?

<p>Biological vs environmental emphasis (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which cognitive development stage is marked by the ability to perform logical operations on concrete events?

<p>Concrete Operational (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What stage involves a child's belief that inanimate objects have feelings and intentions?

<p>Preoperational (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement correctly describes how Piaget believed children assimilate new information?

<p>By fitting new information into existing schemas (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of a good scientific theory?

<p>It generates broader research opportunities. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes a hypothesis?

<p>A testable prediction based on a theory. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of observational research?

<p>To describe behaviors without intervention. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In experimental research, what defines the independent variable?

<p>The factor that is manipulated or controlled. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a confound in experimental research?

<p>Something that may influence the dependent variable other than the independent variable. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the Institutional Review Board (IRB)?

<p>To oversee the ethical considerations in research involving human participants. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is the correlation coefficient expressed?

<p>Between -1 and +1. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary characteristic of naturalistic observation?

<p>Behavior is observed in a natural setting without interference. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What ethical guidelines must researchers follow when conducting studies with humans?

<p>Ensure participants know the details and give consent. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes experimental research from correlational research?

<p>Experimental research determines causal relationships through manipulation of variables. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a limitation in case studies?

<p>They may not represent typical cases accurately. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the cyclical relationship between theory and hypothesis function?

<p>A hypothesis leads to testing, which may revise the theory. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the first step when formulating a theory?

<p>Narrowing down focus after a literature search. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In reinforcement theory, what key concept is being measured?

<p>Probability of behavior relative to reinforcement. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

What are neurons?

Specialized cells in the nervous system responsible for transmitting information by sending and receiving electrical and chemical signals.

Who discovered neurons are separate units?

Santiago Ramon y Cajal, a Spanish scientist, was the first to discover that neurons are distinct and separate units, not a continuous network. This revolutionary finding earned him the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1906.

What are the three types of neurons?

Sensory neurons detect stimuli from the environment or inside the body, motor neurons relay commands from the brain to muscles and organs, and interneurons connect different neurons within the nervous system.

What is "all or none" principle?

A neuron either fires a full action potential or doesn't fire at all. The strength of the action potential remains constant, but its frequency can vary.

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What is resting potential?

The electrical charge difference across the neuron's membrane when it's at rest. The inside is more negatively charged compared to the outside.

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What is depolarization?

The process where the inside of the neuron becomes more positively charged due to an influx of sodium ions (Na+) through open channels in the membrane.

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What is repolarization?

The process where the inside of the neuron becomes more negatively charged again as potassium ions (K+) leave through open channels, restoring the resting potential.

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What is the role of myelin?

Myelin is a fatty substance that wraps around axons, insulating them and increasing the speed of action potential transmission. This process is called saltatory conduction, where the signal jumps between gaps in the myelin sheath.

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What is psychology?

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. This means it uses research methods to understand how people think, feel, and behave.

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What are the differences between 'behavior' and 'mental processes'?

Behavior refers to the actions and reactions of an organism that can be observed and measured. Mental processes are internal experiences like thoughts, feelings, and memories, which are not directly observable.

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What is 'Introspection'?

Introspection is a method of self-examination where individuals reflect on their own thoughts, feelings, and experiences.

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What is 'Structuralism'?

Structuralism is a school of psychology that focuses on identifying the basic elements of consciousness.

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Who is considered the 'father of modern psychology'?

Wilhelm Wundt is considered the father of modern psychology because he established the first experimental psychology laboratory in 1879.

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What is 'Functionalism'?

Functionalism is a school of psychology that focuses on the purpose and function of mental processes.

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Who is considered the 'father of AMERICAN psychology'?

William James is considered the father of American psychology for his contributions to functionalism and his influential book, 'Principles of Psychology.'

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What is 'Psychoanalysis'?

Psychoanalysis is a school of psychology that emphasizes the influence of unconscious processes on behavior and personality.

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What is 'Behaviorism'?

Behaviorism is a school of psychology that focuses on the study of observable behaviors and their relationship to environmental factors.

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Who is considered the founder of 'Behaviorism'?

John B. Watson is widely considered the founder of behaviorism, emphasizing the importance of observable behavior and environmental influences on learning.

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Theory

A comprehensive explanation of phenomena that leads to accurate predictions. It offers a framework for understanding and explaining observed patterns.

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Hypothesis

A testable prediction about what will happen under specific circumstances. It's a specific, measurable statement derived from a broader theory.

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Predictive Accuracy

A good theory makes accurate predictions about future observations or events.

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Internal Coherence

A good theory is internally consistent; its parts don't contradict each other.

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Broadness

A good theory explains a wide range of phenomena or behaviors.

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Fertility

A good theory generates new research questions and leads to further exploration.

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Economy

A good theory is parsimonious, explaining the most with the fewest assumptions.

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IRB

Internal Review Board - a committee that reviews research involving human participants to ensure ethical standards are met.

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Observational Research

Research where behaviors are observed and described without manipulating the environment.

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Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in a natural setting without interference.

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Participant Observation

A researcher becomes a part of the group they are observing.

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Case Study

A detailed description of a single individual, often used to study rare or complex cases.

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Random Sampling

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the study.

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Random Assignment

Participants are randomly assigned to different groups in an experiment.

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Independent Variable (IV)

The variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher.

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Operant Conditioning

A type of learning where behaviors are modified based on their consequences. Rewards increase the likelihood of a behavior, while punishments decrease it.

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Skinner Box

A controlled environment used to study animal behavior in a laboratory setting. It allows precise control over stimuli and rewards.

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Humanistic Psychology

A psychological perspective emphasizing human potential, free will, and individual growth. It contrasts with deterministic approaches like behaviorism.

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Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow's theory that humans have a hierarchy of needs, starting with basic survival needs and progressing to self-actualization.

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Self-Actualization

The highest level of human need, characterized by fulfilling one's full potential and achieving personal growth.

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Client-Centered Therapy

A therapeutic approach developed by Carl Rogers, where the client takes the lead in therapy and the therapist provides unconditional support.

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Gestalt Psychology

A school of psychology that focuses on whole perceptions and how individuals perceive objects and patterns as complete units.

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Cognitive Psychology

The study of mental processes such as thinking, learning, memory, and attention.

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Physiological Psychology/Neuroscience

The study of the biological and physiological basis of behavior and mental processes.

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Evolutionary Psychology

Explores how behavioral and mental traits evolved over time due to natural selection and other evolutionary processes.

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Sociocultural Psychology

Studies how social and cultural factors influence the development of behaviors and mental processes.

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Applied Psychology

Uses psychological principles to solve practical problems and improve people's lives.

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Pure Psychology

Seeks to understand fundamental psychological processes without immediate applications.

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Pseudoscience

Claims presented as scientific but lacking empirical support or scientific rigor.

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Scientific Method

A systematic process of observation, experimentation, and analysis used to test hypotheses and gain knowledge.

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Longitudinal Study

A research design that follows the same group of individuals over an extended period, often years or decades.

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Cross-Sectional Study

A research design that compares individuals of different ages at a single point in time.

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Cohort Effect

Differences between groups in a cross-sectional study that are due to factors specific to the groups' birth years, rather than developmental changes.

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Germinal Stage

The first stage of prenatal development, from conception to about 2 weeks, characterized by rapid cell division and implantation in the uterine wall.

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Embryonic Stage

The second stage of prenatal development, from about 3 to 8 weeks, marked by the formation of major organs and body systems.

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Fetal Stage

The third and longest stage of prenatal development, from about 9 weeks to birth, characterized by rapid growth and maturation of organs.

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Teratogen

Any agent that can cause abnormal prenatal development, leading to birth defects.

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Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

A condition caused by prenatal exposure to alcohol, characterized by physical and cognitive impairments.

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Neural Proliferation

The rapid increase in the number of neurons in the developing brain, particularly in the cerebral cortex.

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Neural Migration

The process by which neurons move from their birthplace in the center of the developing brain to their final destination in different brain regions.

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Neural Differentiation

The process by which neurons develop specialized characteristics that allow them to perform specific functions in the brain.

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Synapse Formation

The process by which neurons establish connections with other neurons, forming synapses.

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Attachment

The strong emotional bond that infants develop with their primary caregiver, typically a parent.

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Secure Attachment

A type of attachment characterized by a secure base, a feeling of trust and comfort in the caregiver's presence, and a willingness to explore the environment.

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Insecure Attachment

A type of attachment characterized by anxiety, avoidance, or a combination of both, stemming from inconsistent or unresponsive caregiving.

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Postconventional Morality

The highest level of moral reasoning, where individuals go beyond societal rules and consider universal ethical principles.

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Social Contract Stage (Stage 5)

Moral decisions are based on democratically agreed upon individual rights and social contracts. Individuals understand that rules are meant to maintain order and benefit society.

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Universal Ethical Principles Stage (Stage 6)

Moral decisions are based on abstract principles of justice, fairness, and human rights that transcend specific rules.

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Sensation

The process of detecting stimuli from the environment through sensory receptors.

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Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information into meaningful objects and events.

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Bottom-Up Processing

Building a perceptual experience from smaller pieces of sensory information.

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Top-Down Processing

Perception influenced by prior knowledge, expectations, and experiences.

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Transduction

The conversion of physical energy from the environment into neural impulses that the brain can interpret.

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Absolute Threshold

The minimum level of a stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time.

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Difference Threshold

The minimum difference between two stimuli that can be detected 50% of the time.

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Sensory Adaptation

The decreasing sensitivity to unchanging stimuli over time.

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Electromagnetic Radiation

A form of energy that travels in waves and includes visible light.

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Cornea

The transparent front part of the eye that helps focus light and provides protection.

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Lens

The flexible structure behind the iris that focuses light onto the retina.

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Rods

Photoreceptor cells in the retina responsible for vision in low light conditions and detecting black and white.

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Cones

Photoreceptor cells in the retina responsible for color vision and requiring higher light levels to function.

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What is stagnation?

A feeling of lack of purpose or meaning in work, leading to a sense of being stuck or unfulfilled.

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What is integrity vs. despair?

The final stage of Erikson's psychosocial development, occurring in late adulthood (66 years and older), where individuals reflect on their life and evaluate whether it had meaning and purpose.

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What are schemas?

Mental frameworks or structures that represent specific objects, activities, or concepts. They're like mental blueprints for understanding the world.

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What is assimilation?

The process of fitting new information into existing schemas.

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What is accommodation?

Modifying existing schemas to incorporate new information that doesn't fit.

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What is object permanence?

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible.

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What is representational thought?

The ability to use mental imagery, symbols, and language to think about things that are not physically present.

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What is egocentrism?

The inability to see the world from another's perspective and understand their point of view.

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What is animistic thinking?

The belief that inanimate objects have feelings, motives, and intentions.

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What is conservation?

Understanding that a quantity remains the same despite changes in its appearance or shape.

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What is centration?

Focusing on a single, salient feature of an object while ignoring other relevant features.

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What is private speech?

Overt language directed at oneself, as opposed to others, and thought to be crucial for cognitive development.

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What is the zone of proximal development (ZPD)?

The gap between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance from a more skilled individual.

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What is pre-conventional morality?

Moral reasoning based on self-interest and avoiding punishment.

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What is conventional morality?

Moral reasoning based on societal rules and expectations.

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Dopamine

A neurotransmitter involved in large muscle movement, pleasure, motivation, and is linked to schizophrenia.

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Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that suppress pain, induce pleasure, and contribute to the 'runner's high' feeling.

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Epinephrine

A neurotransmitter responsible for increasing blood pressure and heart rate.

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Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter associated with stress, wakefulness, and mood.

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Serotonin

A neurotransmitter linked to sleep, arousal, depression, and schizophrenia.

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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The network of nerves that connects the brain and spinal cord to the body's organs and tissues.

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Somatic Nervous System

A part of the PNS that controls voluntary muscle movements.

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Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

A part of the PNS that regulates involuntary bodily functions like breathing, heart rate, and digestion.

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Sympathetic Nervous System

A division of the ANS responsible for the 'fight-or-flight' response.

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Parasympathetic Nervous System

A division of the ANS responsible for calming the body and restoring homeostasis.

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Central Nervous System (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord, the control center of the body.

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Hindbrain

The oldest and most primitive part of the brain, responsible for basic life-sustaining functions.

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Medulla

Part of the hindbrain that controls vital functions like breathing, heart rate, and swallowing.

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Cerebellum

Part of the hindbrain responsible for coordination, movement, and balance.

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Midbrain

Part of the brain involved in vision, hearing, sleep, and alertness.

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Reticular Formation

A network of neurons that plays a crucial role in regulating consciousness and arousal.

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Forebrain

The most advanced part of the brain, responsible for complex cognitive functions.

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Thalamus

A relay station for sensory information in the brain.

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Hypothalamus

A control center for the ANS and regulates basic drives like hunger and thirst.

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Limbic System

A group of structures involved in emotions, memory, and motivation.

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Amygdala

Part of the limbic system that plays a role in fear, aggression, and emotional memory.

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Hippocampus

Part of the limbic system involved in the formation of new memories.

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Cerebral Cortex

The outer layer of the brain responsible for higher-level cognitive functions.

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Gray Matter

The outer layer of the brain, consisting of cell bodies and dendrites.

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Corpus Callosum

A thick band of nerve fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain.

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Occipital Lobe

Part of the cerebral cortex responsible for visual processing.

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Parietal Lobe

Part of the cerebral cortex involved in touch, sensation, and spatial awareness.

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Temporal Lobe

Part of the cerebral cortex involved in hearing, language, and memory.

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Frontal Lobe

The most anterior part of the cerebral cortex responsible for planning, decision-making, and complex behavior.

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Cerebral Lateralization

The specialization of the left and right hemispheres of the brain for different cognitive functions.

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Right Hemisphere

Specialized for visual and spatial tasks, music recognition, and emotional processing.

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Left Hemisphere

Specialized for language, logic, and analytical processing.

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Development

The systematic, lifelong process of physical, cognitive, and social changes that occur from conception to death.

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Study Notes

Psychology as a Science

  • Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
  • It utilizes the scientific method, where behavior refers to observable actions and mental processes are internal experiences.
  • "Ology" refers to study, and "psych" originates from the Greek word "psyche," meaning mind.
  • Psychiatry differs from psychology:
    • Psychologists hold PhDs or PsyDs and cannot prescribe medication.
    • Psychiatrists hold MDs, can prescribe medication, and tend to focus on physiological factors in patient issues.

Historical Development of Schools of Psychology

  • A "school" of psychology represents a specific approach to the field, focusing on particular areas of interest and asking specific kinds of questions.

Structuralism (late 1800s)

  • Wilhelm Wundt is considered the father of modern psychology.
  • He established the first psychology lab in Germany in 1879.
  • His approach (voluntarism) emphasized the structure of the mind utilizing introspection (self-reporting).
  • Edward Titchner, a student of Wundt, developed structuralism in the US, focusing on connecting elements of the mind into "laws."

Functionalism (late 1800s)

  • William James is considered the Father of American psychology.
  • Influenced by Darwin's theory of natural selection.
  • Functionalists investigated how mental processes helped organisms adapt to environments.
  • Used diverse methods, including introspection and experimentation.
  • Studied various groups, including children and animals, unlike structuralists.
  • Key figures: Mary Calkins, Edward Thorndike, and Robert Woodworth.

Psychoanalysis (late 1800s)

  • Sigmund Freud, a medical doctor, founded psychoanalysis.
  • Emphasized unconscious processes and motivational forces.
  • Focused on early childhood experiences and sexual/aggressive drives; a less emphasized trend today.
  • Employed methods like dream analysis and free association to explore the unconscious mind.

Behaviorism (1920s-1970s)

  • John B. Watson is considered the founder of behaviorism.
  • Behaviorism emphasized observable behavior as the primary focus of psychology.
  • The "mind" was considered a "black box" – irrelevant for study.
  • Goal: predicting and controlling behavior.
  • Based on logical positivism (knowledge verifiable through evidence).
  • Key figures: Ivan Pavlov (classical conditioning) and B.F. Skinner (operant conditioning).

Humanistic Psychology (1960s)

  • Rejects deterministic approaches of behaviorism and psychoanalysis.
  • Promotes individual uniqueness, choice, growth, and psychological well-being.
  • Emphasizes free will and self-actualization.
  • Key figures: Abraham Maslow (hierarchy of needs, self-actualization) and Carl Rogers (client-centered therapy).

Gestalt Psychology (early 1900s)

  • Developed in Germany as a reaction to structuralism.
  • Emphasized holistic perception (the whole is more than the sum of its parts).
  • Focused on how people perceive organized patterns in perception.
  • Key figures: Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Köhler.

Cognitive Psychology (1950s and 1960s)

  • Emerged as a renewed interest in mental processes.
  • Computer models were used to understand the mind.
  • Key figure: Noam Chomsky questioned the behaviorist view, advocating for studying mental processes in language development.

Physiological/Neuroscience Psychology

  • Focuses on the physiological processes (nervous and endocrine systems) and genetics involved in behavior and mental processes.
  • Studies interactions of the nervous and endocrine systems and genetics on our behavior.

Evolutionary Psychology

  • Examines the evolutionary basis of behavior and mental processes.
  • Utilizes the concept of natural selection to explain psychological traits.

Sociocultural Psychology (1990s)

  • Emphasizes the role of social and cultural factors in psychological development.
  • Highlights the influence of parents, caregivers, peers, and culture on individual growth.
  • Key figure: Lev Vygotsky.

Areas of Specialization in Psychology

  • Many areas of specialization exist.

  • Includes pure and applied psychology.

Stages in the Research Process

  • Understanding of pseudoscience is essential.
  • Research involves identifying topics, reviewing literature, and forming theories and hypotheses.
  • Scientific method includes study design, ethical considerations, data collection and analysis, and reporting results.
  • Research methods vary (observational, experimental, correlational).

Neurons

  • Neurons are specialized cells for transmitting information.
  • Three basic types: sensory, motor, and interneurons.
  • Glial cells support neurons.

Neural Operations

  • Neurons function on the all-or-none principle; either firing or at rest.
  • Action Potential: a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
  • Neurotransmitters transmit signals across synapses.
    • Synaptic transmission involves excitatory and inhibitory messages. Reuptake and enzymes manage neurotransmitters.

Major Neurotransmitters

  • Various neurotransmitters and their roles are significant to understand.

Divisions of the Nervous System

  • The nervous system is divided into the PNS, connecting the brain and spinal cord to body parts, and the CNS, consisting of the brain and spinal cord, protected and cushioned by bone, meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid.
    • The PNS includes the somatic (voluntary) and autonomic nervous systems (involuntary) with sympathetic and parasympathetic branches.

Studying the Brain

  • Various methods for studying brain structure and activity are employed, including EEG, MEG, CAT, MRI, PET, and fMRI.

Major Brain Regions

  • The brain is divided into hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain regions, each with specific functions.

Genetic Influences on Behavior

  • Genetic factors play a role in behaviors and mental processes.

Development

  • Development entails systematic changes across the lifespan, involving physical, cognitive, and social domains.

Methods for Investigating Development

  • Several methods (case studies, longitudinal, cross-sectional) help study development.

Prenatal Development

  • Prenatal development occurs in three distinct stages (germinal, embryonic, and fetal).
  • Environmental influence and parental factors can impact fetal development.

Development of the Nervous System

  • Neural proliferation, migration, differentiation, and synapse formation are substantial parts of brain development, along with pruning.

Infant Reflexes

  • Infants come with reflexes (some permanent, some modified) for survival (breathing, sucking, grasping).

Infant Sensory Systems

  • Sensory systems (vision, hearing, touch, taste, and smell) develop gradually after birth, with some functional from birth.

Social Development & Attachment

  • Attachment, an emotional bond, develops between infant and caregiver.
  • Harlow's research highlighted the crucial role of social interaction.
  • Attachment styles (secure or insecure) have potential impacts in later life.
  • Parenting styles and temperament both affect attachment style.

Self-Concept and Self-Esteem

  • Self-concept and self-esteem develop throughout childhood, influenced by parenting styles.

Parenting Styles

  • Parenting styles (authoritative, authoritarian, permissive) impact child development.

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

  • Erikson's psychosocial theory (eight stages) outlines developmental tasks and conflicts for each stage.

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

  • Piaget's theory posits qualitative changes in cognitive abilities across stages (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational).

Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development

  • Vygotsky emphasized the social nature of cognitive development, focusing on the zone of proximal development.

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning

  • Kohlberg's theory outlines distinct stages of moral reasoning development (preconventional, conventional, postconventional).

Sensation and Perception

  • Sensation refers to sensory receptors' detection of stimuli; perception encompasses organizing sensations into meaningful experiences.
  • Bottom-up processing constructs a perception from sensory input; top-down processing uses prior knowledge to interpret stimuli.
  • Psychophysics studies the link between physical stimuli and psychological sensations.
  • Absolute threshold is the minimum detectable stimulus; difference threshold is the minimum perceivable difference. 
  • Sensory adaptation occurs as receptors adjust to unchanging stimuli.
  • Vision, hearing, and other sensory systems are important topics.

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Explore the foundation of psychology as a scientific discipline. Understand the differences between psychology and psychiatry, as well as the historical development of various schools of thought, starting with structuralism pioneered by Wilhelm Wundt.

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