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Questions and Answers
What did Santiago Ramon y Cajal discover about neurons?
What did Santiago Ramon y Cajal discover about neurons?
Which type of neuron is responsible for sending commands from the brain to muscles and glands?
Which type of neuron is responsible for sending commands from the brain to muscles and glands?
During the depolarization phase of an action potential, which ions primarily enter the axon?
During the depolarization phase of an action potential, which ions primarily enter the axon?
What is the primary function of glial cells in the nervous system?
What is the primary function of glial cells in the nervous system?
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What occurs during the repolarization phase of an action potential?
What occurs during the repolarization phase of an action potential?
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What type of conduction allows action potentials to travel faster along myelinated axons?
What type of conduction allows action potentials to travel faster along myelinated axons?
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Which neurotransmitter plays a significant role in muscle actions, such as walking and talking?
Which neurotransmitter plays a significant role in muscle actions, such as walking and talking?
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Which process involves the removal of neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft?
Which process involves the removal of neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft?
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What neurotransmitter is primarily associated with large muscle movement and motivation?
What neurotransmitter is primarily associated with large muscle movement and motivation?
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Which part of the nervous system is responsible for involuntary actions and maintaining homeostasis?
Which part of the nervous system is responsible for involuntary actions and maintaining homeostasis?
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What is the primary function of the hindbrain's cerebellum?
What is the primary function of the hindbrain's cerebellum?
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Which scanning technique is known for visualizing brain activity based on glucose consumption?
Which scanning technique is known for visualizing brain activity based on glucose consumption?
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The thalamus is primarily known to function as what in the brain?
The thalamus is primarily known to function as what in the brain?
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What is a key function of GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)?
What is a key function of GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)?
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Which lobe of the cerebral cortex is primarily responsible for processing visual information?
Which lobe of the cerebral cortex is primarily responsible for processing visual information?
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What does the corpus callosum connect?
What does the corpus callosum connect?
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Which process involves the transmission of information from the muscles and skin to the central nervous system?
Which process involves the transmission of information from the muscles and skin to the central nervous system?
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What describes a common function of the left hemisphere of the brain?
What describes a common function of the left hemisphere of the brain?
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Which system is primarily concerned with hormone regulation in the body?
Which system is primarily concerned with hormone regulation in the body?
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What is the primary consequence of damage to the occipital lobes?
What is the primary consequence of damage to the occipital lobes?
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Which part of the brain is vital for the regulation and maintenance of consciousness?
Which part of the brain is vital for the regulation and maintenance of consciousness?
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What is a significant disadvantage of case studies?
What is a significant disadvantage of case studies?
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What is the main focus of postconventional morality?
What is the main focus of postconventional morality?
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Which prenatal stage involves the development of major organs beginning to function?
Which prenatal stage involves the development of major organs beginning to function?
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Which of the following processes is associated with sensation?
Which of the following processes is associated with sensation?
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What factor is most associated with increased risk of genetic abnormalities in a fetus?
What factor is most associated with increased risk of genetic abnormalities in a fetus?
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Which type of processing builds a perceptual experience from smaller pieces of information?
Which type of processing builds a perceptual experience from smaller pieces of information?
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During which phase of neuronal development do neurons begin to form connections?
During which phase of neuronal development do neurons begin to form connections?
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Which attachment style is characterized by caregivers who are unresponsive to the infant's needs?
Which attachment style is characterized by caregivers who are unresponsive to the infant's needs?
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What is the function of the rods in the retina?
What is the function of the rods in the retina?
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What is a common outcome for infants with a secure attachment style?
What is a common outcome for infants with a secure attachment style?
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What does the term 'absolute threshold' refer to?
What does the term 'absolute threshold' refer to?
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What do the sensitive ends of olfactory neurons detect?
What do the sensitive ends of olfactory neurons detect?
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Which type of reflex is considered permanent in newborns?
Which type of reflex is considered permanent in newborns?
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What type of light-sensitive cells require a higher level of light to function?
What type of light-sensitive cells require a higher level of light to function?
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Which parenting style is characterized by strict rules and high demands?
Which parenting style is characterized by strict rules and high demands?
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What significant event occurs during the 'identity vs role confusion' stage in Erikson's theory?
What significant event occurs during the 'identity vs role confusion' stage in Erikson's theory?
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Which part of the ear amplifies sound waves?
Which part of the ear amplifies sound waves?
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What is the typical age range when separation anxiety peaks in infants?
What is the typical age range when separation anxiety peaks in infants?
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What does the place theory of pitch perception suggest?
What does the place theory of pitch perception suggest?
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What phenomenon illustrates sensory adaptation?
What phenomenon illustrates sensory adaptation?
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Which teratogen can cause serious developmental issues such as fetal alcohol syndrome?
Which teratogen can cause serious developmental issues such as fetal alcohol syndrome?
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What does the rooting reflex in newborns help them to develop?
What does the rooting reflex in newborns help them to develop?
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What are the primary components of color vision according to the trichromatic theory?
What are the primary components of color vision according to the trichromatic theory?
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Which function does the lens of the eye serve?
Which function does the lens of the eye serve?
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What role does temperament play in the development of attachment?
What role does temperament play in the development of attachment?
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What does the term psychology specifically refer to?
What does the term psychology specifically refer to?
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Which psychologist is known as the father of modern psychology?
Which psychologist is known as the father of modern psychology?
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What key concept differentiates structuralism from functionalism in psychology?
What key concept differentiates structuralism from functionalism in psychology?
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How did behaviorism change the focus of psychology following its rise?
How did behaviorism change the focus of psychology following its rise?
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What was a major contribution of Sigmund Freud to psychology?
What was a major contribution of Sigmund Freud to psychology?
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What role did introspection play in the study of psychology during structuralism?
What role did introspection play in the study of psychology during structuralism?
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Which statement best describes the main focus of functionalism?
Which statement best describes the main focus of functionalism?
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What significant approach did John B. Watson advocate in psychology?
What significant approach did John B. Watson advocate in psychology?
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Which concept is NOT associated with Sigmund Freud?
Which concept is NOT associated with Sigmund Freud?
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What was a critical view held by functionalists that differed from structuralists?
What was a critical view held by functionalists that differed from structuralists?
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What does operant conditioning primarily focus on?
What does operant conditioning primarily focus on?
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In humanistic psychology, what is considered essential for self-actualization?
In humanistic psychology, what is considered essential for self-actualization?
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Which movement focused on the perception of objects as whole units rather than individual components?
Which movement focused on the perception of objects as whole units rather than individual components?
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How did cognitive psychology emerge in the 1950s and 1960s?
How did cognitive psychology emerge in the 1950s and 1960s?
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What does evolutionary psychology aim to understand?
What does evolutionary psychology aim to understand?
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What is a primary focus of developmental psychology?
What is a primary focus of developmental psychology?
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What does clinical psychology primarily deal with?
What does clinical psychology primarily deal with?
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What does the term 'pure science' in psychology refer to?
What does the term 'pure science' in psychology refer to?
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Which psychologist is known for opposing behaviorist views on language development?
Which psychologist is known for opposing behaviorist views on language development?
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Which area of psychology focuses on the influence of cultural factors on development?
Which area of psychology focuses on the influence of cultural factors on development?
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What does the hierarchy of needs proposed by Maslow signify?
What does the hierarchy of needs proposed by Maslow signify?
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What aspect of psychology does industrial/organizational psychology focus on?
What aspect of psychology does industrial/organizational psychology focus on?
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Which of the following is NOT an area of specialization in psychology?
Which of the following is NOT an area of specialization in psychology?
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What is the primary concept in Piaget's theory that refers to a unit of knowledge representing a specific activity or object?
What is the primary concept in Piaget's theory that refers to a unit of knowledge representing a specific activity or object?
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Which cognitive development stage is characterized by egocentrism and the inability to understand conservation?
Which cognitive development stage is characterized by egocentrism and the inability to understand conservation?
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At what stage in Kohlberg's moral development does a child focus on avoiding punishment?
At what stage in Kohlberg's moral development does a child focus on avoiding punishment?
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What process occurs when a child changes their existing schemas to incorporate new information?
What process occurs when a child changes their existing schemas to incorporate new information?
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What did Vygotsky emphasize as crucial for cognitive development?
What did Vygotsky emphasize as crucial for cognitive development?
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During which stage of development do children typically begin to reason abstractly?
During which stage of development do children typically begin to reason abstractly?
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Which of the following describes the term 'object permanence'?
Which of the following describes the term 'object permanence'?
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What characterizes Level 2 of Kohlberg's moral development?
What characterizes Level 2 of Kohlberg's moral development?
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What does centration refer to in cognitive development?
What does centration refer to in cognitive development?
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What is the main difference between Piaget and Vygotsky's theories of cognitive development?
What is the main difference between Piaget and Vygotsky's theories of cognitive development?
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Which cognitive development stage is marked by the ability to perform logical operations on concrete events?
Which cognitive development stage is marked by the ability to perform logical operations on concrete events?
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What stage involves a child's belief that inanimate objects have feelings and intentions?
What stage involves a child's belief that inanimate objects have feelings and intentions?
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Which statement correctly describes how Piaget believed children assimilate new information?
Which statement correctly describes how Piaget believed children assimilate new information?
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What is a characteristic of a good scientific theory?
What is a characteristic of a good scientific theory?
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Which of the following best describes a hypothesis?
Which of the following best describes a hypothesis?
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What is the primary purpose of observational research?
What is the primary purpose of observational research?
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In experimental research, what defines the independent variable?
In experimental research, what defines the independent variable?
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What is a confound in experimental research?
What is a confound in experimental research?
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What is the role of the Institutional Review Board (IRB)?
What is the role of the Institutional Review Board (IRB)?
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How is the correlation coefficient expressed?
How is the correlation coefficient expressed?
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What is a primary characteristic of naturalistic observation?
What is a primary characteristic of naturalistic observation?
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What ethical guidelines must researchers follow when conducting studies with humans?
What ethical guidelines must researchers follow when conducting studies with humans?
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What distinguishes experimental research from correlational research?
What distinguishes experimental research from correlational research?
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What is an example of a limitation in case studies?
What is an example of a limitation in case studies?
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How does the cyclical relationship between theory and hypothesis function?
How does the cyclical relationship between theory and hypothesis function?
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What is the first step when formulating a theory?
What is the first step when formulating a theory?
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In reinforcement theory, what key concept is being measured?
In reinforcement theory, what key concept is being measured?
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Study Notes
Psychology as a Science
- Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
- It utilizes the scientific method, where behavior refers to observable actions and mental processes are internal experiences.
- "Ology" refers to study, and "psych" originates from the Greek word "psyche," meaning mind.
- Psychiatry differs from psychology:
- Psychologists hold PhDs or PsyDs and cannot prescribe medication.
- Psychiatrists hold MDs, can prescribe medication, and tend to focus on physiological factors in patient issues.
Historical Development of Schools of Psychology
- A "school" of psychology represents a specific approach to the field, focusing on particular areas of interest and asking specific kinds of questions.
Structuralism (late 1800s)
- Wilhelm Wundt is considered the father of modern psychology.
- He established the first psychology lab in Germany in 1879.
- His approach (voluntarism) emphasized the structure of the mind utilizing introspection (self-reporting).
- Edward Titchner, a student of Wundt, developed structuralism in the US, focusing on connecting elements of the mind into "laws."
Functionalism (late 1800s)
- William James is considered the Father of American psychology.
- Influenced by Darwin's theory of natural selection.
- Functionalists investigated how mental processes helped organisms adapt to environments.
- Used diverse methods, including introspection and experimentation.
- Studied various groups, including children and animals, unlike structuralists.
- Key figures: Mary Calkins, Edward Thorndike, and Robert Woodworth.
Psychoanalysis (late 1800s)
- Sigmund Freud, a medical doctor, founded psychoanalysis.
- Emphasized unconscious processes and motivational forces.
- Focused on early childhood experiences and sexual/aggressive drives; a less emphasized trend today.
- Employed methods like dream analysis and free association to explore the unconscious mind.
Behaviorism (1920s-1970s)
- John B. Watson is considered the founder of behaviorism.
- Behaviorism emphasized observable behavior as the primary focus of psychology.
- The "mind" was considered a "black box" – irrelevant for study.
- Goal: predicting and controlling behavior.
- Based on logical positivism (knowledge verifiable through evidence).
- Key figures: Ivan Pavlov (classical conditioning) and B.F. Skinner (operant conditioning).
Humanistic Psychology (1960s)
- Rejects deterministic approaches of behaviorism and psychoanalysis.
- Promotes individual uniqueness, choice, growth, and psychological well-being.
- Emphasizes free will and self-actualization.
- Key figures: Abraham Maslow (hierarchy of needs, self-actualization) and Carl Rogers (client-centered therapy).
Gestalt Psychology (early 1900s)
- Developed in Germany as a reaction to structuralism.
- Emphasized holistic perception (the whole is more than the sum of its parts).
- Focused on how people perceive organized patterns in perception.
- Key figures: Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Köhler.
Cognitive Psychology (1950s and 1960s)
- Emerged as a renewed interest in mental processes.
- Computer models were used to understand the mind.
- Key figure: Noam Chomsky questioned the behaviorist view, advocating for studying mental processes in language development.
Physiological/Neuroscience Psychology
- Focuses on the physiological processes (nervous and endocrine systems) and genetics involved in behavior and mental processes.
- Studies interactions of the nervous and endocrine systems and genetics on our behavior.
Evolutionary Psychology
- Examines the evolutionary basis of behavior and mental processes.
- Utilizes the concept of natural selection to explain psychological traits.
Sociocultural Psychology (1990s)
- Emphasizes the role of social and cultural factors in psychological development.
- Highlights the influence of parents, caregivers, peers, and culture on individual growth.
- Key figure: Lev Vygotsky.
Areas of Specialization in Psychology
-
Many areas of specialization exist.
-
Includes pure and applied psychology.
Stages in the Research Process
- Understanding of pseudoscience is essential.
- Research involves identifying topics, reviewing literature, and forming theories and hypotheses.
- Scientific method includes study design, ethical considerations, data collection and analysis, and reporting results.
- Research methods vary (observational, experimental, correlational).
Neurons
- Neurons are specialized cells for transmitting information.
- Three basic types: sensory, motor, and interneurons.
- Glial cells support neurons.
Neural Operations
- Neurons function on the all-or-none principle; either firing or at rest.
- Action Potential: a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
- Neurotransmitters transmit signals across synapses.
- Synaptic transmission involves excitatory and inhibitory messages. Reuptake and enzymes manage neurotransmitters.
Major Neurotransmitters
- Various neurotransmitters and their roles are significant to understand.
Divisions of the Nervous System
- The nervous system is divided into the PNS, connecting the brain and spinal cord to body parts, and the CNS, consisting of the brain and spinal cord, protected and cushioned by bone, meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid.
- The PNS includes the somatic (voluntary) and autonomic nervous systems (involuntary) with sympathetic and parasympathetic branches.
Studying the Brain
- Various methods for studying brain structure and activity are employed, including EEG, MEG, CAT, MRI, PET, and fMRI.
Major Brain Regions
- The brain is divided into hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain regions, each with specific functions.
Genetic Influences on Behavior
- Genetic factors play a role in behaviors and mental processes.
Development
- Development entails systematic changes across the lifespan, involving physical, cognitive, and social domains.
Methods for Investigating Development
- Several methods (case studies, longitudinal, cross-sectional) help study development.
Prenatal Development
- Prenatal development occurs in three distinct stages (germinal, embryonic, and fetal).
- Environmental influence and parental factors can impact fetal development.
Development of the Nervous System
- Neural proliferation, migration, differentiation, and synapse formation are substantial parts of brain development, along with pruning.
Infant Reflexes
- Infants come with reflexes (some permanent, some modified) for survival (breathing, sucking, grasping).
Infant Sensory Systems
- Sensory systems (vision, hearing, touch, taste, and smell) develop gradually after birth, with some functional from birth.
Social Development & Attachment
- Attachment, an emotional bond, develops between infant and caregiver.
- Harlow's research highlighted the crucial role of social interaction.
- Attachment styles (secure or insecure) have potential impacts in later life.
- Parenting styles and temperament both affect attachment style.
Self-Concept and Self-Esteem
- Self-concept and self-esteem develop throughout childhood, influenced by parenting styles.
Parenting Styles
- Parenting styles (authoritative, authoritarian, permissive) impact child development.
Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
- Erikson's psychosocial theory (eight stages) outlines developmental tasks and conflicts for each stage.
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
- Piaget's theory posits qualitative changes in cognitive abilities across stages (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational).
Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development
- Vygotsky emphasized the social nature of cognitive development, focusing on the zone of proximal development.
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning
- Kohlberg's theory outlines distinct stages of moral reasoning development (preconventional, conventional, postconventional).
Sensation and Perception
- Sensation refers to sensory receptors' detection of stimuli; perception encompasses organizing sensations into meaningful experiences.
- Bottom-up processing constructs a perception from sensory input; top-down processing uses prior knowledge to interpret stimuli.
- Psychophysics studies the link between physical stimuli and psychological sensations.
- Absolute threshold is the minimum detectable stimulus; difference threshold is the minimum perceivable difference.
- Sensory adaptation occurs as receptors adjust to unchanging stimuli.
- Vision, hearing, and other sensory systems are important topics.
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Description
Explore the foundation of psychology as a scientific discipline. Understand the differences between psychology and psychiatry, as well as the historical development of various schools of thought, starting with structuralism pioneered by Wilhelm Wundt.
