Psychology 211: Developmental Psychology

Social System

• A social system is an orderly arrangement and interrelationship of parts, with each part having a fixed place and definite role to play.
• It is a comprehensive arrangement that considers all diverse subsystems, such as economics, politics, and religion.
• Elements prevalent in a social system include:
  • Faith and knowledge: bring about uniformity in behavior and act as controlling agencies of different types of human society.
  • Sentiments: play a major role in investing society with continuity and are directly linked with the culture of the people.
  • End goal or objective: determines the nature of the social system.
  • Ideas and norms: lay down certain norms and ideas for keeping a social system intact and determining the various functions of the different needs.
  • Status role: every individual in society has a status role, which may be determined by birth, sex, or age.
  • Power: implicit in a social system, with someone vested with the power to punish or reward.
  • Sanctions: imply confirmation by the superior in authority of the acts done to the subordinates or the opposition of penalty for infringement of common rights.
• Characteristics of a social system:
  • Connected with the plurality of individual acts
  • Aim and objective: human interactions or activities should not be aimless and without subjective
  • Order and pattern among various constituent units
  • Functional relationship is the basis of unity
  • Physical or environmental aspect: connected with a definite geographical area or place
  • Linked with cultural system: brings about unity amongst different members of the society
  • Characteristics of adjustment: influenced by changes in the social form

Principles of Psychology

• Psychology is the study of behavior, derived from the Greek words "psychi" and "logy" meaning mind and study.
• Goals of psychology:
  • To describe behavior
  • To predict behavior
  • To explain why people think, feel, and act the way they do
  • To control behavior
• A psychologist is someone who has an industrial or master's degree in psychology.
• Principles of psychology:
  • The mind is the product of the physical machine, which is the brain
  • We are consciously aware of only a small part of our mental activity
  • Experience physically alters the structure and function of the brain

Principles of Growth and Development

• Growth:
  • An increase in size in many parts of the body simultaneously
  • Accompanies age increase
  • Irreversible and quantitative in nature
• Stages of growth:
  • Prenatal period (0-birth)
  • Neonatal stage/infancy (birth-14 days)
  • Babyhood (14 days-2 years)
  • Childhood (2 years-adolescence)
  • Adolescence (13/14 years-21 years)
• Principles of growth:
  • Each individual grows at their own pace
  • Heredity and environment are instrumental to growth
  • Growth is a process of integration
  • Growth is more rapid in early age
  • Growth depends on maturation
• Development:
  • Systematic changes in the individual that occur between conception and death
  • Can be defined by referring to particular developmental milestones
  • Influenced by genetic and prenatal environmental factors
• Differences between growth and development:
  • Development is more comprehensive and subsumes growth
  • Development is a continuous process, while growth terminates at a certain stage in life
  • Growth is indicated in body dimension, while development is expressed in both body and function
  • Growth is quantitative, while development is qualitative

Theories of Personality Development

• Personality is a pattern of characteristic thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that persists over time and situations that distinguishes one person from another.
• Dimensions of personality:
  • Openness
  • Conscientiousness
  • Extraversion
  • Agreeableness
  • Neuroticism (Emotional stability)
• Factors of personality development:
  • Heredity
  • Environment (parenting style, school, peer relationships, cultural factors, and situational factors)
• Theories of personality development:
  • Psychoanalytic theory by Sigmund Freud
    • Id: present at birth, unconscious, and seeks immediate gratification
    • Ego: develops from the Id, deals with reality, and operates on the reality principle
    • Superego: originates from the ego, holds internalized moral standards, and suppresses unacceptable origins of the Id
  • Ego defense mechanisms:
    • Rationalization
    • Regression
    • Displacement
    • Sublimation
    • Repression
    • Identification
    • Denial### Psycho-Social Theory of Development by Erik Erikson
• Trust vs Mistrust (Birth to 2 years)
  • Child completely depends on primary caregiver
  • Level of trust depends on caregiver's attendance to child's needs
  • Well-handled stage leads to trust, while poor handling leads to mistrust
• Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (2 to 4 years)
  • Child wants to do things independently
  • Characterized by self-possession, initiative, and independence
  • Poor handling leads to shame and doubt, while well-handling leads to confidence
• Initiative vs Guilt (4 to 6 years)
  • Stage characterized by persistent questioning and interaction
  • Child prefers to do things with other children, leading and following
  • Poor handling leads to guilt and fear, while well-handling leads to confidence
• Industry (Competence) vs Inferiority (6 to 12 years)
  • Stage coincides with elementary school age to junior secondary school
  • Child masters skills, progressing from free play to teamwork
  • Poor handling of earlier stages leads to mistrust, shyness, and inferiority
• Identity vs Role Confusion (12 to 20 years)
  • Stage where individual answers "who am I" satisfactorily
  • Shows refinement, maturity, and quest for relevance
  • Poor handling leads to role confusion, disobedience, and peer group influence
• Intimacy vs Isolation (Young Adulthood) (20 to 40 years)
  • Stage of early adulthood, faced with choice of intimacy or isolation
  • Struggles to form relationships and gain capacity for intimate love
  • Poor handling leads to emotional isolation
• Generativity vs Stagnation (40 to 60 years)
  • Stage of middle adulthood, building life, establishing career, and contributing to society
  • Well-handled stage leads to virtue, while poor handling leads to stagnation
• Integrity vs Despair (60 years and above)
  • Stage of late adulthood, reflecting on life's success or failure
  • Well-handled stage leads to sense of satisfaction and integrity, while poor handling leads to despair

Techniques of Counseling in Group Counseling

• What is Counseling?
  • Activity freely entered into by the person seeking help
  • Allows client to discover things bothering them
  • Contracted relationship with boundaries
• Features of Counseling
  • Facilitative two-way collaborative exchange
  • Supportive relationship enabling clients to explore problems
  • Not advice-giving, persuasive, or exercising undue influence
• Stages of a Typical Counseling
  • Initial phase: creating a rapport, exchanging pleasantries, and establishing a warm and courteous greeting
  • Working phase: using techniques like probing, paraphrasing, and confrontation to work through feelings
  • Termination phase: client's lack of problem, referring to another counselor, or successful completion of the case
  • Follow-up phase: checking on client's progress and maintaining behavior acquired during counseling

Group Counseling

• When to Use Group Counseling?
  • General incident among students
  • Threatening encounter with clients
  • Individuals lacking a sense of belonging
  • Fostering kids in interpersonal skills
• Goals of Group Counseling
  • Learn to trust oneself and others
  • Become more open with selected group of people
  • Learn to confront others politely
  • Explore hidden potentials
  • Learn to give or share with others
  • Become more sensitive to others' needs
• Process in Group Counseling
  • Introductory familiarization stage: introducing oneself and other group members
  • Working stage: stating problems, clarifications, and interactions
  • Consolidation stage: willingness to work together and solve problems
  • Termination stage: achieving group objectives and discussing what was learned
• Advantages of Group Counseling
  • Economical in time and human resources
  • Realistic view of problems as they are not peculiar
  • Easier acceptance of changes
  • Help from multiple sources
  • Involves problem-solving skills
• Disadvantages of Group Counseling
  • Individual attention cannot be guaranteed
  • In-depth appraisal may not be made due to lack of time
  • Confidentiality and self-disclosure limited
  • Evaluating progress and attainment of objectives not easy
  • Applying diagnostic tools not easy in group counseling

Attitude Formation and Attitudinal Change

• Definition of Attitude
  • Tendency to react favorably or unfavorably towards a designated class of stimuli
  • Combination of cognitive, affective, and behavioral disposition towards a person or object
• Components of Attitude
  • Cognitive: beliefs and factual knowledge
  • Affective: emotional response or feelings
  • Behavioral: disposition to do something about one's feelings and beliefs
• Theories of Acquisition or Modification of Attitude
  • Learning theories approach: attitude change through classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and persuasion
  • Social influence approach: depending on other people for information to establish attitude validity
  • Functional approach: attitude as a function of the extent to which goals are achieved
  • Cognitive consistency theory: striving for consistency among cognitions

Please provide the specific topics you want me to focus on for the assignment (Balance Theory and Cognitive Dissonance Theory), and I'll be happy to assist you.