Psychological Testing Principles

Test Varieties

• Tests include personnel selection, promotion, classification, licensure/certification, school admission, school certification, and special education evaluations.

Reliability

• Reliability refers to the replicability of test results.
• Reliable tests yield consistent results over time and across different populations.

Validity

• Validity determines whether a test measures the intended concept.
• Content and construct validity assess if the test measures the skills it should.

Barnum Effect

• The Barnum Effect relates to validity.
• Test results can be explained by criteria other than what the test is designed to measure.
• Error sources include a test taker's motivation level.
• Motivation variations can affect outcomes.

Test Manual Contents

• A test manual should include the following:
• Test development and purpose
• Test condition information
• Data about the population used for test development
• Validity and reliability information
• Validity documentation

Scoring Errors

• Scoring errors occur in 53% of personality inventories.
• 19% of manually scored tests contain errors.

Moreland's Competencies

• Moreland identifies competencies and 7 factors associated with problems in test use.
• Competencies needing focus include:
• Avoiding scoring problems
• Maintaining scores
• Ensuring test-takers follow instructions
• Reducing participant direction
• Establishing participant rapport

Common Errors

• The 7 most common errors include:
• Lack of competence
• Inappropriate test use
• Lack of psychometric knowledge
• Failure to maintain test integrity
• Scoring errors

Psychological Assessments

• 60-70% of programs teach sensitive psychological evaluations for human diversity.

Informed Consent Aspects

• Informed consent has three aspects:
• Knowledge
• Voluntariness (absence of coercion)
• Capacity

Best Practices

• Best practices include applying basic psychometric knowledge.
• Preparing manuals is important.
• Diagnostic tools should be appropriate and validated.
• Clients should be informed of the purpose and provided feedback.

Practices to Avoid

• Avoid practices such as using tools without necessary training.
• Do not use assistants to administer tests.
• Do not be negligent with informed consent.

Ethical Complaints

• Ethical complaints often relate to sexual and non-sexual behaviors.
• These are frequently addressed by ethics committees.

Role Relationships

• The APA defines multiple-role relationships when a therapist in a professional role engages in another relationship with the same person.
• Promises of future relationships also qualify.

Exploitation

• Exploitation of clients for personal gratification occurs in two main ways:
• Therapists seek client details for entertainment
• Therapists involve clients in promoting therapists' causes

Therapist Client Dynamics

• Exploitation arises when therapists' value of time and skills is elevated compared to the client.
• Therapeutic relationships with friends or family should be avoided.
• Transitioning from a unidirectional relationship can disappoint clients who idealize their therapists.
• Conflicts of interest arise with referrals involving former clients and known individuals.
• Gifts exceeding gratitude or marking special occasions can become ethical issues.

Gifts and Favors

• Therapists accepting gifts are more likely in culturally relevant contexts.
• Therapists can offer gifts or favors occasionally after careful consideration.
• Locations for patient meetings outside the office should be chosen by the patients .

Client Preferences

• 54% of patients desire recognition.
• 33% prefer conversation.
• A small percentage prefer being ignored.

Engagement with Students

• Educators should avoid engagement with students outside the institution.

Boundaries

• Focus on professional boundaries and understanding risks in multiple relationships.
• Preparation is key for client encounters outside the office.

Awareness Factors

• Be cautious when entering complex relationships with patients or students to avoid conflicts of interest.
• Therapists need to understand family and close friends' dynamics.
• Assess the risks involved in referrals from former patients, friends, or family.

Factors to Avoid

• Avoid self-disclosure unless it advances treatment.
• Never use clients for personal gratification or entertainment.
• Steer clear of friendships with patients.
• Refrain from promises or future plans post-therapy.

Attraction to Patients

• Very few therapists report never feeling attracted to a patient.
• 95% of male therapists admit attraction to a patient at some point.
• 76% of female therapists report feeling attraction to a patient.
• Feelings include guilt, anxiety, and confusion.
• Only a small percentage of therapists act on these feelings, with 9.4% being men and 2.5% women.
• Just 12% of psychologists never feel attracted to clients.

Client Perceptions

• Younger patients may perceive sexual attraction.
• Three components arise when a client feels attracted to a therapist:
• Interpretation of client behavior
• Therapist's role as viewed
• Internal emotional response of the patient

Patient Responses

• Patients touched non-erotically report low negative effects and likely positive reactions.
• Non-erotic physical contact is beneficial for both genders under certain circumstances with only 27% reporting to do it.
• 90% of therapists rarely touch clients, usually just handshakes.
• Erotic touch by a therapist violates boundaries.
• 9% of male and 1% of female therapists report such contact.

Predator Therapists

• Predatory therapists start with small gestures leading to sexual exploitation.
• 26% of male and 3% of female therapists admit sexual contact with patients.
• 16% of male and 1.5% of female psychologists engage in such behavior.
• Incest survivors are at higher risk.
• Therapist characteristics include vulnerability, fear of intimacy, personal sexual crisis, feeling like a failure, and the need for power.
• Most affected patients are young women, with 5% being underage.
• 3-10% of therapists have had sex with former patients.
• Sexual relationships can continue without repercussions.
• There is a 50% chance a therapist will encounter a patient abused by another therapist.
• 10% of students report relationships with professors.
• 13% of professors report relationships with students.
• 25% of women reported sexual contact with educators.

Ethical Awareness

• Ethical awareness requires continuous awareness.
• Knowledge of ethical codes and standards is essential.
• Keep up with evolving research and theory.
• Question assumptions, asking, "What if I'm wrong?"
• Questioning ethical behaviors must be mutual.

Helpful or Harmful

• When making a decision involving boundaries, assessing whether a boundary crossing is likely to be helpful or harmful is important.
• Imagine "best" and "worst possible outcomes" if boundaries are crossed or not crossed.
• Consider published research on boundary crossing.
• Know guidance from professional guidelines.
• Identify a colleague for honest feedback.
• Pay attention to feelings, doubts, or confusion.

Boundary Crossing Decisions

• Errors include believing events outside therapy are unrelated.
• Boundary crossing with a therapy client is different than with others.
• Client understanding of boundary crossing matters.
• What helps one client may not help other.
• Boundary crossing is not static or isolated

Boundary Crossing Issues

• Monitor the cross cautiously, paying attention to discomfort.
• Be open and non-defensive.
• Discuss with an experienced colleague.
• Listen carefully to the client.
• Understand the client's viewpoint.
• Apologies can heal professional mistakes.

Psychological Assessment

• Tests are useful in specific situations, but that no test works well for all tasks.

Confirmation Bias

• Information consistent with attitudes and beliefs is mostly sought.

Gatekeeping

• Psychologists are gatekeepers of information that affects individuals.

Therapy and Sex

• 90% of patients are harmed by sex with a therapist.
• 80% are harmed if the involvement starts post-therapy.
• About 11% required hospitalization.
• 14% attempted and 1% committed suicide.
• About 10% had prior rape and 1/3rd had incest or child abuse.
• 5% were underaged during the act, and only 17% recovery fully.
• About 4.4% of therapists engage in sex with a client.
• Offenders are 4x likely to be male than female.
• Approximately 7% of male therapists engage in one or more clients versus 1.5% of female therapists.
• Over 80% of psychologists and social workers felt attracted to at least one client.
• 92-95% of male compared to 70-76% of female participants report feeling sexually attracted to at least one client.

Important Class Notes

• Minors have legally protected, but ethically restricted, confidences.
• Raw client data must be translated into report format before distribution.
• Self-disclosure in therapy begins as friendship and sexual tension.
• Understand their Purpose/motives/population.
• What are the Problems?
• What are the Benefits?
• Be aware that self-revelation is not ideal for victimized/abused clients.
• Consensual sex is legal but unethical.
• California law prohibits sexual relationships with patients up to 2 years post-termination.
• Multiple non-sexual relationships can be problematic if exploitative.
• The APA coded relations with patients starting in 1977.