Psychological Approaches Overview

Approaches to the Study of Psychological Processes

• Psychologists use different approaches to understand and explain human behaviour.
• Biological Approach: This approach focuses on biological factors, such as the brain, genes, hormones, and neurotransmitters, to understand behaviour.
  • It examines how different parts of the brain regulate feelings, memories, emotions, and other aspects of behaviour.
  • It also explores the role of hormones in behaviour, such as the impact of over-secretion or under-secretion on various aspects.
  • This approach includes the sub-discipline of behaviour genetics, studying the genetic determinants of behaviour.
• Psychoanalytic Approach: This approach, developed by Sigmund Freud, emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind in behaviour.
  • This approach focuses on the hidden libidinal energy within the individual, the unconscious mental contents that drive behaviour.
  • It explores the different layers of consciousness (conscious, preconscious, and unconscious) and how they interact.
  • It uses methods such as dream analysis, slip-of-the-tongue analysis, and studying neuroses and psychoses to understand unconscious motivations.
• Humanistic Approach: Developed by Carl Rogers, this approach emphasizes the conscious experience of the present, interpersonal experiences, and individual growth potential.
  • It emphasizes the role of personal experiences, free will, and the individual's capacity for growth towards psychological maturity.
  • It assumes individuals are active and self-actualizing agents, seeking congruence between self and experience.
  • It contrasts with the Psychoanalytic Emphasis on unconscious motivation.
• Other Approaches: There are other approaches not specifically described in this section, such as the Behaviouristic Approach and the Cognitive Approach.

Methods of Understanding Human Behaviour

• Experimentation: This method examines the effects of one variable (independent variable) on another (dependent variable).
  • The experimenter manipulates and controls the independent variable.
  • The experiment uses two groups, an experimental group receiving the independent variable and a control group without the independent variable.
  • By comparing the two groups, researchers can determine if the manipulation of the independent variable causes a change in the dependent variable.
• Observational Method: This method involves systematic observation and recording of behaviour in a natural setting.
  • It relies on clear indicators or specific behaviors to observe.
  • Researchers can collect data through video recording, tallies, and specific observations of behaviors.
• Psychological Tests: These are instruments used to assess various attributes and limitations of the individual.
  • Standardized psychological tests must demonstrate reliability and validity.
  • Reliability ensures consistency in producing dependable scores across administrations.
  • Validity indicates that the test accurately measures what it is supposed to.
  • Psychological tests are classified as verbal, non-verbal (performance), objective, and projective.
• Questionnaire: This method uses a set of questions to collect data.
  • The questions can be either closed-ended (limited options) or open-ended (free response).
  • The questionnaire offers efficiency in collecting data from a large group of people.
• Interview: This technique involves structured or unstructured conversations between an interviewer and an interviewee.
  • The interviewer actively listens and guides the conversation with specific objectives in mind.
  • Interviews are used for various purposes, such as recruitment, counseling, and market research.

Different Approaches to Studying Psychological Processes

• Biological Approach: Focuses on biological components like the brain, genes, hormones, the endocrine system, and neurotransmitters to understand how they impact behavior.
• Cognitive Approach: Emphasizes the individual's information processing capabilities.
• Humanistic Approach: Assumes a person is an active and self-actualizing agent who can choose their behavior.
• Psychodynamic Approach: Posits that unconscious motivations drive most human behaviors.
• Behavioral Approach: Focuses on analyzing and studying explicit, objective, and overt behaviors and their relationships with environmental stimuli.

Methods to Understand Psychological Processes

• Psychologists use a variety of scientific methods to understand human behavior, develop theories, test them, and apply them to solve problems.
• These methods aim to provide dependable understanding that guides behavior in various situations.
• Observation: A systematic method for recording events without interfering with the variables at play.
  • Naturalistic Observation: Observing events in their natural environment without control over variables.
  • Laboratory Observation: Observing events in a controlled setting where variables are manipulated.
  • Participant Observation: Researchers become part of the event under study.
  • Non-Participant Observation: Researchers maintain distance and minimize their impact on the event.
  • Advantages of observation: Provides insight into the range of behavior in natural settings.
  • Disadvantages of observation: Time-consuming and susceptible to researcher bias.
• Experiment: A controlled method where researchers manipulate an independent variable to study its effects on a dependent variable, while controlling for extraneous variables.
  • Independent Variable: The variable manipulated by the experimenter.
  • Dependent Variable: The variable measured to see the effect of the independent variable.
  • Extraneous Variables: Variables that could affect the results and need to be controlled.
  • Organismic Variables: Personal characteristics of participants like age, sex, or personality.
  • Situational Variables: Environmental factors like temperature, humidity, or noise.
  • Sequential Variables: Factors related to the order of experimental conditions, such as practice effects or fatigue.
  • Techniques to control extraneous variables: Elimination, making conditions constant, matching, and counterbalancing.
• Case Study: An in-depth analysis of a single individual or a small group, often over an extended period, to understand their experiences across different contexts.
• Survey: A method used to gather data about opinions, attitudes, beliefs, and values from a large sample of individuals using questionnaires or interviews.

Psychological Tools

• Psychological Tests: Used to assess a variety of psychological attributes like intelligence, aptitude, and interest.
  • Developed based on theoretical frameworks.
  • Administered individually or in groups.
  • Individual scores are compared to others who have taken the same test.
• Questionnaires: Used for collecting information from a large number of individuals, often in a structured format.
• Interviews: A method for gathering information through direct conversation, allowing for more in-depth exploration of individual experiences and perspectives.
• Physiological Measures: Used to gather physiological data like heart rate, blood pressure, or brain activity using tools such as:
  • Electroencephalogram (EEG): Measures brain electrical activity.
  • Electrocardiogram (ECG): Measures heart activity.
  • Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI): Measures brain activity by detecting blood flow changes.
  • Polygraph: Measures physiological responses to assess stress or arousal levels.
• Behavioral Observations: Systematic recording of overt behaviors using techniques like:
  • Time Sampling: Observing behavior at specific intervals.
  • Event Sampling: Recording every occurrence of a particular behavior.
  • Rating Scales: Using predetermined scales to assess the intensity or frequency of behaviors.