Psyc 312: Research Methods Overview

• The study notes provided summarize key concepts and procedures across qualitative and quantitative research methods, spanning from research design and literature reviews to data analysis and sampling techniques.

Study Units

• Psyc 312 notes cover conceptualizing psychological research, research dimensions, the research cycle, literature reviews, and inductive and deductive reasoning as approaches to research
• Qualitative research encompasses various critical components that shape its practice, including the initial conceptualization, which defines the research questions and objectives. It also involves selecting appropriate designs that guide the methodology, determining sampling techniques to select participants, employing robust data collection methods to gather rich, detailed information, and conducting thorough data analysis to interpret findings accurately and meaningfully.
• Deductive research is primarily grounded in existing theories and hypotheses, aiming to test specific predictions through structured methodology. This approach often employs quantitative research designs, such as experiments and surveys, to gather numerical data. Sampling techniques are crucial in this process, as they determine how representative the findings will be of the overall population.

Study Unit 1.1: Conceptualizing Research

• Research involves systematically collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data to understand a phenomenon.
• Key characteristics of research include being systematic (step-by-step, logical), data-driven (collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data), and aimed at increasing understanding
• Six dimensions of research: why, what, how, who, where, and when

Six Dimensions of Research

• Why addresses the importance or gap in existing knowledge, which can be found in other research
• What defines the purpose or aim of the research, derived from literature reviews
• How dictates the methods used to answer research questions or build theories, requiring systematic methodology
• Who identifies the sample/population being researched and how to access them
• Where specifies the place and context, acknowledging contextual differences
• When refers to the timing of the research, which can be influenced by external events or optimal testing times

Study Unit 1.2: Literature Reviews

• Literature reviews serve as a foundational component of academic research, as they not only assist in identifying the central topic of interest but also help to formulate clear and focused research questions. Additionally, they evaluate the suitability of various approaches and methodologies for addressing these questions, ensuring that researchers can build upon previous findings and contribute effectively to their field of study.
• Literature reviews help researchers develop the proposal, integrate theory, and address ethical implications
• The purpose of a literature review is to motivate research, provide context, compare findings, justify methods, and highlight gaps
• Literature reviews refine topics, build theoretical frameworks, identify knowledge gaps and weaknesses in studies, and refine research methods
• Literature reviews help in understanding ethcal implications
• The steps in the literature review process consist of several essential phases. Firstly, Preparation involves defining the research question and identifying relevant keywords. Secondly, Retrieval necessitates searching for and collecting scholarly articles and sources. Next, Appraisal requires critically evaluating the credibility and relevance of these sources. Following this, Synthesis/Summarizing involves integrating findings and identifying patterns. Finally, Writing is the stage where the review is articulated cohesively.

Study Unit 1.3: Explores inductive reasoning (generalizations from observations) and deductive reasoning (conclusions from general principles), essential for critical thinking and analytical skills.

• Inductive reasoning is a cognitive process that allows individuals to formulate conclusions and insights based on observed data and specific instances. This approach typically begins with particular observations, which are then analyzed to identify patterns or trends. Through this method, researchers aim to build general principles or hypotheses, making it a valuable tool in exploratory studies where existing theories may not apply. The open-ended nature of inductive reasoning encourages further inquiry and adaptation, fostering a continuous cycle of learning and discovery.
• In inductive reasoning, the researcher approaches the subject matter without preconceived notions, allowing for a more open and exploratory analysis. This method often begins with specific observations or data points, gradually building toward broader generalizations or theories. By focusing on patterns and connections within the collected data, researchers can generate hypotheses that may reveal new insights and understanding within their field of study.
• Deductive reasoning is a systematic method of logical reasoning that begins with a general statement or hypothesis and examines the possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion. In this approach, a researcher starts with established theories or laws and then collects empirical data to test these foundational ideas. By employing a top-down model, deductive reasoning enables the formulation of predictions that can be empirically verified, thereby solidifying or challenging existing theories. This methodology emphasizes obtaining evidence that is aligned with the pre-existing framework to derive validated conclusions.
• In deductive reasoning, the researcher assumes the role of the "expert," which implies a deep understanding of the existing theories related to the subject matter. This approach is characterized by the process of collecting specific data that directly tests or supports established hypotheses. The researcher starts with a general principle or theory, from which they derive specific predictions. This method is often seen in disciplines where pre-existing theories provide a solid foundation for further investigation.
• Inductive research, in contrast, emphasizes a bottom-up approach, wherein theories are built through the careful observation of empirical data and detailed accounts. Researchers often begin without a predefined hypothesis and allow patterns and themes to emerge from the data itself. This approach is particularly valuable in exploratory research, where little prior knowledge exists, and it encourages the discovery of new insights and conceptual frameworks from real-world experiences.
• Deductive research rigorously tests theoretical propositions through various methodologies, employing empirical observation to validate or refute the hypotheses that stem from these theoretical frameworks. This process involves careful data collection, statistical analysis, and often seeks to establish causal relationships. Logical statistics plays a crucial role in interpreting results, ensuring that conclusions drawn are not only supported by data but are also statistically significant.
• Qualitative research typically adopts an inductive approach, utilizing detailed, context-rich data gathered from complex interviews and observations. This method values subjective interpretations and often seeks to understand participants' experiences, beliefs, and motivations. By gathering narrative data, qualitative research provides deeper insights into social phenomena, allowing for a more nuanced understanding that often escapes quantitative methods.
• In contrast, quantitative research is characterized by its deductive nature. It often begins with established theories leading to the formulation of clear hypotheses, which are then tested through the collection and analysis of numeric data. This approach relies on instruments and statistical techniques that quantify phenomena, enabling researchers to draw objective conclusions and make generalizations based on statistical evidence.
• In this framing, deductive reasoning highlights the researcher’s expertise in navigating pre-existing theories, which helps in the meticulous collection of targeted data. This contrast with inductive strategies underscores different research objectives, offering a rich tapestry of methods suited to varied research goals and contexts.
• Similarly, inductive research thrives on the richness of observational data, where detailed accounts pave the way for new theoretical insights to emerge organically, reflecting the complexities of human behavior and societal structures.
• Thus, while deductive and inductive methods serve distinct roles in the research landscape, they are both essential for advancing knowledge across various disciplines.
• Ultimately, the interplay between qualitative and quantitative methodologies enhances the depth and breadth of research findings, fostering a more comprehensive understanding of the subject matter.
• In summary, both deductive and inductive methodologies enrich the research process by engaging different perspectives, ultimately contributing to the evolution of knowledge within a field.

Quantitative and Qualitative Research

• Quantitative research employs numerical data to quantify variables, enabling researchers to make statistical comparisons and analyze relationships. This methodology is particularly useful in identifying patterns and trends within large datasets. It allows for the systematic investigation of phenomena, providing a clearer understanding of the current state through measurable evidence. By using tools such as surveys and experiments, quantitative research can yield objective findings that contribute to generalizable insights in various fields, including social sciences, health, and market research.
• Qualitative research employs various methodologies, prominently featuring focus groups and in-depth interviews as key tools for data collection. These methods enable researchers to gather rich, descriptive data that reflect individuals' personal experiences and viewpoints. The approach prioritizes subjective interpretations of social phenomena rather than quantifiable metrics, making it adaptive to evolving insights. Researchers often embrace flexibility in their processes, allowing new findings to shape the direction of their inquiry. This dynamic nature facilitates deeper understanding of complex human behaviors and societal trends.

Study Units 2.1 and 2.2: Qualitative Research Designs

• Qualitative research encompasses various methodologies, such as interviews, focus groups, and participant observation, that allow researchers to gather rich, detailed information. This approach emphasizes understanding the meanings individuals assign to their experiences, thus prioritizing context and subjective interpretations, which can reveal complex social dynamics and emotional responses that quantitative methods may fail to capture effectively.

• The research paradigm serves as a foundational framework that shapes how researchers approach their inquiries. Methodology refers to the systematic processes used to gather and analyze data, while axiology involves the study of values and ethics in research. Epistemology addresses the nature and scope of knowledge, and ontology explores the nature of reality and existence.

• Interpretivist/Social Constructivist Paradigms emphasize multiple subjective realities, socially constructed meaning, dynamic meaning, non-neutral researchers and multiple interpretations of phenomena

• Common Qualitative Research Designs include various methodologies that focus on understanding human behavior and experiences. Narrative research involves the systematic collection and interpretation of personal stories and accounts, allowing researchers to understand how individuals construct meaning from their experiences. This method emphasizes the role of storytelling in shaping identities and sharing cultural contexts. It draws on various narrative forms, including interviews, written stories, and oral histories, exploring how these narratives reflect broader societal themes and personal insights.

  In contrast, case studies delve into the complexities of a particular individual or group by providing a comprehensive examination of their circumstances and context. Researchers use case studies to explore intricate details, revealing patterns and insights that might not emerge from larger quantitative studies.

  Ethnography focuses on the description and analysis of cultural phenomena through immersive observation and participation within a community. This approach seeks to understand the norms, values, and practices of a group from an insider perspective, often employing long-term engagement.

  Meanwhile, phenomenology seeks to uncover the essence of lived experiences by examining how individuals perceive and interpret their realities. This qualitative research method emphasizes understanding experiences from the participants' viewpoints, highlighting the subjective nature of human experience.

Common Qualitative Designs

• Phenomenology is a philosophical approach that aims to gain a deep understanding of the lived experiences of individuals. It delves into the essence of human consciousness and how people interpret their experiences, focusing on the subjective perception of complex phenomena. This method allows researchers to explore emotions, thoughts, and societal influences, thereby illuminating how individuals navigate their realities.
• Narrative inquiry emphasizes the importance of personal stories in understanding human behavior and experiences. It seeks to capture the unique narratives participants construct about their lives, reflecting their identity, values, and insights. The narratives can reveal how individuals make sense of their past, relate to their present situations, and envision their futures, providing rich qualitative data for analysis.
• Ethnography involves a detailed examination of groups that share common cultural characteristics. This qualitative research method requires immersive fieldwork, where researchers engage with communities to observe and document their daily lives, practices, and social interactions. By employing techniques such as participant observation and in-depth interviews, ethnography provides a comprehensive understanding of cultural dynamics and social structures.
• Case studies are intensive investigations of a particular entity, event, or phenomenon within a defined context. This method allows researchers to explore the complexities and interrelationships of various factors surrounding the case, often yielding insights that can be applied to broader settings. Detailed data collection is employed, including interviews, observations, and document analysis, to build a holistic view of the case under study.
• Action research is a collaborative inquiry that involves stakeholders actively participating in the research process. Researchers and participants work together to identify problems, develop strategies, implement solutions, and evaluate outcomes. This approach not only contributes to generating knowledge but also leads to practical changes, enhancing the problem-solving capacity of the involved community. It emphasizes reflection and iterative cycles of planning, action, and evaluation.

Action Research

• In Action research, the primary focus is significantly directed towards generating meaningful change and developing effective community solutions. This approach aims to address specific issues faced by communities through collaborative efforts, ensuring that the input and experiences of community members are integrated into the research process. By emphasizing real-world problems, Action research seeks to empower individuals and groups to take ownership of the change process, ultimately leading to sustainable development.
• In Action research, the researcher plays a crucial role, acting as a mediator of various interventions designed to facilitate progress and improvement. This method follows a cyclical and iterative process, meaning that it involves continuous reflection, assessment, and refinement of strategies based on feedback and results. Each cycle provides the opportunity to evaluate the effectiveness of previously implemented interventions, adjust practices accordingly, and further engage the community in shaping the course of research, thereby fostering a dynamic and responsive research environment.
• In Action research, the focus is firmly on fostering change while leveraging the strengths and resources within communities to find sustainable solutions.
• In Action research, the researcher’s role in mediating interventions highlights the collaborative nature of this methodology, ensuring active involvement from participants and stakeholders throughout the entire research process, reinforcing a commitment to cyclical improvement and adaptive practices.
• Credibility and trustworthiness are essential, including systematic data, applicability to other contexts, and confirmability
• Phenomenology emphasizes gaining an in-depth understanding of a specific phenomenon by exploring individuals' subjective experiences and interpretations. This approach seeks to uncover the essence of experiences, revealing how individuals perceive and make sense of various events within their lifeworld.

Study Unit 2.3: Methods of Qualitative Sampling

• Qualitative research uses inductive reasoning, which involves drawing general conclusions from specific observations and experiences. This approach enables researchers to develop theories and insights based on the nuanced and complex nature of human behavior, social interactions, and cultural contexts. By focusing on the meanings and interpretations of participants, qualitative research provides a rich and in-depth understanding of the phenomena under investigation.
• A researcher can ground their research in existing theory, they cannot formulate a study which specifically finds if this is right or wrong.
• Definitions: Participants are the pepole who take part
• Definitions: Sample is the target group with shared characteristics applicable to research
• A Population refers to the total number of individuals inhabiting a specific area, such as a country, city, or region. It encompasses various demographic factors including age, gender, race, and ethnicity. Understanding population trends is essential for analyzing social dynamics, economic development, public health, and resource allocation. Population growth can occur due to natural increase, where the number of births exceeds the number of deaths, or through migration, as individuals move from one location to another. Various tools and methods, such as census data and demographic surveys, are employed to gather information about populations, enabling governments and organizations to plan for the future and address challenges related to infrastructure, education, and healthcare. is a broad group with applicable characteristics to the research

Sampling Definitions

• Non-probability sampling involves selecting participants based on specific attributes or criteria rather than random selection, often prioritizing convenience and accessibility over representativeness in the sample population.
• Probability sampling is random selection with large sample size, each participant has an equal chance of selection
• Qualitative research focuses on in-depth experiences and intensive data collection.
• Sample groups must be relevant to the study

Non-Probability Sampling

• Non-probability sampling techniques include purposive (deliberate), snowball, convenience, and quota sampling
• Purposive sampling, also known as judgmental sampling, involves selecting individuals for a study based on particular characteristics relevant to the research goals. This method is advantageous when researchers want to ensure that the sample reflects specific traits or experiences that are pertinent to the research question, enabling them to gain deeper insights into the topic under investigation.
• Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling technique often used in qualitative research, where existing study subjects recruit future subjects from among their acquaintances. This method is particularly useful for accessing hard-to-reach populations or sensitive topics.

Non-Probability Sampling techniques

• Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where researchers utilize subjects that are easiest to access, often due to geographic proximity or availability. This method allows for quicker data collection but may introduce bias, as the sample may not be representative of the broader population.
• Quota sampling is a non-probability sampling technique that involves selecting a predetermined number of specific samples from distinct groups within a population. This method ensures that the sample reflects certain characteristics of the population, allowing researchers to analyze groups while maintaining diversity in responses.
• Methods to implement non-probability sampling include defining research objectives, identifying requirements, creating a sampling frame and selecting target partipants

Types and Accuracy of Data

• Qualitative primary data encompass a variety of rich, detailed information sources that have not undergone any form of publication. Such data may originate from personal experiences, unmediated interactions, in-depth interviews, and firsthand observations of specific phenomena. This type of data is vital for understanding complex human behaviors, motivations, and social contexts.
• Secondary data is previously published: journal articles, books, transcripts
• Data reliability is crucial in both inductive and deductive research methodologies. In inductive research, which involves generating theories based on observed patterns, the accuracy of the data significantly shapes the conclusions drawn. Similarly, in deductive research, where hypotheses are tested against data, reliable data ensures validity and strengthens the overall findings.

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

• Inductive reasoning is a method of reasoning in which one makes generalizations based on specific observations or experiences. This process often involves looking for patterns and regularities in instances to form broader principles that can be applied to other cases. It differs from deductive reasoning, which starts with a general statement and deduces specific conclusions from it. Inductive reasoning is commonly used in scientific research, where hypotheses are derived from repeated experimental results. Inductive reasoning analyzes data then builds the themes and ideas
• Deductive reasoning is a logical process where conclusions are drawn from general principles or premises. This method relies on the idea that if the premises are true, then the conclusion must also be true. It often involves syllogisms, which are structured arguments with two premises followed by a conclusion. For example, if all humans are mortal (premise one) and Socrates is a human (premise two), then it must follow that Socrates is mortal (conclusion). This type of reasoning is crucial in fields such as mathematics, philosophy, and formal logic to establish definitive truths based on established information. It will test whether a hypothesis is true

Study Unit 2.4: Qualitative Data Collection

• Types of qualitative primary data include firsthand accounts, which capture personal experiences and perceptions related to specific events or phenomena. Interviews are another crucial method that allows for in-depth conversations with participants, enabling researchers to explore attitudes, beliefs, and motivations in detail. Observations involve systematically watching and recording behaviors or events within a naturalistic setting, providing rich context and insights. Direct writing, such as journals or diaries, provides unmediated accounts of experiences, thoughts, and feelings, thus allowing researchers to access the subjective realities of individuals. These data types are essential for understanding complex social and cultural dynamics.
• Types of Secondary Data are second hand accounts like newspapers, journal articles as well as someone else's interview transcript

Qualitative Collection Methods

• Data collection must be conducted in a naturalistic manner, which means that it should occur in real-world settings without the influence of the researcher's manipulation or interference. This allows for a more authentic understanding of the phenomena being studied. Researchers should employ open and flexible questions to encourage participants to express their thoughts, feelings, and experiences freely. This type of questioning fosters rich, qualitative data that can capture the nuances and complexities of human behavior.
• Data interpretation aligns with the interpretivist and social constructivist paradigms, which emphasize understanding the subjective meanings individuals attach to their experiences. These paradigms suggest that knowledge is constructed through social interactions and personal perspectives, urging researchers to consider the context and cultural backgrounds of their subjects when interpreting data.
• Common methods for gathering qualitative data include one-on-one interviews, which allow researchers to delve deeply into an individual's thoughts and experiences. Focus groups, consisting of guided discussions among a diverse group of participants, can illuminate shared perspectives. Additionally, observational techniques enable researchers to gather insightful information by witnessing behaviors in natural settings.
• An interview is a two way converstation where participants answer the questions
• Questions should be focused on certain topics
• Questions can be single or mutiple depending on design and intention of focus

Interviews and Focus Groups

• Structured interviews have detailed questions similar to a survey
• Semi-structured interviews are broader questions designed to encourage emergence lines
• Flexible interviewers ask questions such as "what does it mean in a social/cultural setting, as well as identitfing influences".
• In Focus groups (Exploratory discussions in groups) a relative passive moderator helps to drive ideas and dynamics

Ensuring useful Data from Interviews

• Systematic: Interviewees must have unique interpretations
• Reproducible: Topic guide should allow easy replication
• Credible: Accurate and insightful questioning of participatns
• Transparent: Should provide a clear report on both the questions and their analysis of those questions

Methods for qualitative data collection are diverse and include techniques such as interviews, focus groups, participant observation, and content analysis, each offering unique insights into human behavior.

• Data quality is fundamentally dependent on the formulation of questions that are not only broad enough to encompass various aspects of the inquiry but also come with precise, clear instructions that guide the respondents effectively. It is crucial that these instructions are carefully documented systematically to ensure consistency in responses. This structured approach enhances the reliability of the data collected and facilitates better analysis and interpretation of the information gathered.
• Natural immersion refers to the process of deeply engaging with a language or environment, allowing for a more intuitive and authentic learning experience. This approach often emphasizes interaction, context-based learning, and real-world applications, which can significantly enhance language acquisition and cultural understanding.