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What is the primary goal of drawing conclusions in the context of research?
What is the primary goal of drawing conclusions in the context of research?
Which of the following best describes an operational definition regarding a variable?
Which of the following best describes an operational definition regarding a variable?
Why is it inaccurate to infer a causal relationship from a correlational study?
Why is it inaccurate to infer a causal relationship from a correlational study?
What is the defining feature of an experimental study?
What is the defining feature of an experimental study?
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What does random assignment ensure in an experiment?
What does random assignment ensure in an experiment?
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In a 'between-groups' design, how many levels of independent variable does each participant experience?
In a 'between-groups' design, how many levels of independent variable does each participant experience?
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What is a primary focus of open science?
What is a primary focus of open science?
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Which of the following is a goal of study preregistration?
Which of the following is a goal of study preregistration?
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What is the primary characteristic of a 'raw score'?
What is the primary characteristic of a 'raw score'?
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Which of the following best describes the purpose of a frequency distribution?
Which of the following best describes the purpose of a frequency distribution?
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In the context of open science practices, what does preregistration refer to?
In the context of open science practices, what does preregistration refer to?
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In the context of the provided speed skating data, which of the following best categorizes the 'Rank' variable?
In the context of the provided speed skating data, which of the following best categorizes the 'Rank' variable?
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What is the main characteristic of a frequency table?
What is the main characteristic of a frequency table?
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If a researcher is measuring the 'Time (min)' of the speed skaters, and is particularly interested in the differences in the skaters' times, which of the following best classifies this variable?
If a researcher is measuring the 'Time (min)' of the speed skaters, and is particularly interested in the differences in the skaters' times, which of the following best classifies this variable?
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Based on Table 2-3, what is the total number of countries that have exactly 2 volcanos?
Based on Table 2-3, what is the total number of countries that have exactly 2 volcanos?
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What percentage of countries in the provided dataset have exactly 3 volcanoes?
What percentage of countries in the provided dataset have exactly 3 volcanoes?
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Which type of variable is most suitable for categorizing the 'Country' of the speed skaters?
Which type of variable is most suitable for categorizing the 'Country' of the speed skaters?
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Based on Table 2-3, which country has the second highest number of volcanos?
Based on Table 2-3, which country has the second highest number of volcanos?
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What does HARKing, as described in the content, stand for?
What does HARKing, as described in the content, stand for?
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How many countries have between 10 and 19 volcanoes, according to the grouped frequency table data?
How many countries have between 10 and 19 volcanoes, according to the grouped frequency table data?
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In an experiment examining the effect of study method on exam scores, consider the hypothetical distribution of practice experiment described in Table 5.1, what is the independent variable?
In an experiment examining the effect of study method on exam scores, consider the hypothetical distribution of practice experiment described in Table 5.1, what is the independent variable?
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In the same study assessing study techniques, what, in Table 5.1, represents a potential dependent variable?
In the same study assessing study techniques, what, in Table 5.1, represents a potential dependent variable?
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According to the information provided, why might the values for Indonesia (45), Japan (40), Russia (55), and the US (81) in Table 2-3 be considered outliers?
According to the information provided, why might the values for Indonesia (45), Japan (40), Russia (55), and the US (81) in Table 2-3 be considered outliers?
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A histogram, as described in the content, displays which type of data?
A histogram, as described in the content, displays which type of data?
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Given the hypothetical distribution of practice experiment, what potentially confounding variable might be introduced if Group 1 only studied in the morning, whereas Group 3 only studied in the evening?
Given the hypothetical distribution of practice experiment, what potentially confounding variable might be introduced if Group 1 only studied in the morning, whereas Group 3 only studied in the evening?
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What shape is expected for a frequency distribution that has a bell-shaped, symmetric, and unimodal curve?
What shape is expected for a frequency distribution that has a bell-shaped, symmetric, and unimodal curve?
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Which of the following best describes the concept of a test that consistently produces similar results when administered repeatedly?
Which of the following best describes the concept of a test that consistently produces similar results when administered repeatedly?
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In a positively skewed distribution, which tail of the distribution is pulled away from the center?
In a positively skewed distribution, which tail of the distribution is pulled away from the center?
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A researcher develops a test for spatial reasoning, but finds that it mostly measures verbal comprehension. In this scenario, which concept is most compromised?
A researcher develops a test for spatial reasoning, but finds that it mostly measures verbal comprehension. In this scenario, which concept is most compromised?
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According to the provided data, what is the combined percentage of countries with either 1 or 2 volcanoes?
According to the provided data, what is the combined percentage of countries with either 1 or 2 volcanoes?
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If the histogram's x-axis represents the number of volcanoes and ranges from 0 to 17, and the y-axis represents frequency, what does a specific bar's height indicate?
If the histogram's x-axis represents the number of volcanoes and ranges from 0 to 17, and the y-axis represents frequency, what does a specific bar's height indicate?
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Based on the grouped frequency table, how many countries have 40 or more volcanoes?
Based on the grouped frequency table, how many countries have 40 or more volcanoes?
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Which of the following best describes the relationship between a population and a sample?
Which of the following best describes the relationship between a population and a sample?
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In the sleep study example, what do the descriptive statistics primarily communicate?
In the sleep study example, what do the descriptive statistics primarily communicate?
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Which of the following is the best example of a discrete variable?
Which of the following is the best example of a discrete variable?
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According to Table 1-1, which type of variable is always discrete?
According to Table 1-1, which type of variable is always discrete?
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A researcher measures the reaction time of participants in milliseconds. Is this an example of a discrete or continuous variable? Which type of variable is it MOST likely to be classified as?
A researcher measures the reaction time of participants in milliseconds. Is this an example of a discrete or continuous variable? Which type of variable is it MOST likely to be classified as?
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In a study examining the effectiveness of a new medication, the researchers report a significant difference between the treatment and control groups. What does this inferential statistic primarily suggest?
In a study examining the effectiveness of a new medication, the researchers report a significant difference between the treatment and control groups. What does this inferential statistic primarily suggest?
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Which of the following is an example of a nominal variable?
Which of the following is an example of a nominal variable?
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A researcher wants to study the relationship between income and life satisfaction. If income is measured in specific dollar amounts and life satisfaction is assessed on a 7-point rating scale. What is the variable type for each? Select the option that matches Income and life satisfaction in that order.
A researcher wants to study the relationship between income and life satisfaction. If income is measured in specific dollar amounts and life satisfaction is assessed on a 7-point rating scale. What is the variable type for each? Select the option that matches Income and life satisfaction in that order.
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Study Notes
PSYC 2019H - Lecture 1: Introduction and Basic Concepts
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Basic Terminology: Descriptive statistics organize, summarize, and communicate numerical observations. Inferential statistics use sample data to estimate characteristics of a larger population. A population includes all possible observations. A sample is a subset of the population.
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Descriptive Statistics: A lecture example provided data on total sleep time for younger and older adults. The mean sleep time for younger adults was 472.88 minutes with a standard deviation of 70.42. Mean sleep time for older adults was 391.42 with a standard deviation of 72.29.
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Inferential Statistics: Sleep time for older adults was significantly less than for younger (t(46) = 3.95, p < .001). Results from the sample are generalized to ALL young and older adults with caution.
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Variables: Variables are observations of physical, attitudinal, and behavioral qualities that can assume different values.
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Discrete Observations: These variables only accept specific numerical values, like whole numbers with no values between them (e.g., 1, 2, 3)
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Continuous Observations: These variables can take on any value within a given range and include decimal values.
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Variable Types:
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Nominal: Variables with categories or names as values (e.g., gender, eye color)
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Ordinal: Variables with rankings as values (e.g., rank in a competition)
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Interval: Variables with numerical values where the distance between consecutive numbers is equal (e.g., temperature).
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Ratio: Interval variables with a meaningful zero point (e.g., height, weight). "Scale variables" often refer to Interval or Ratio variables.
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Independent and Dependent Variables:
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Independent Variable: Variables manipulated or observed to determine its effect on a dependent variable.
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Dependent Variable: Outcome variable hypothesized to be influenced by the independent variable.
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Confounding Variable: A confounding variable systematically varies with the independent variable so the influence of that variable cannot be logically discerned during analysis.
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Reliability and Validity:
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Reliability: Consistency of a measure.
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Validity: Extent to which a test measures what it intends to.
Introduction to Hypothesis Testing
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Hypothesis Testing: Process of drawing conclusions regarding relationships between variables, supported by evidence.
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Operational Definition: Precise specification of operations/procedures used to measure or manipulate a variable.
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Example: In a study on infant health, a researcher conducted surveys on 1000 pregnant women to analyse if exercise has a positive impact on newborn health outcomes. A positive correlation was observed.
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Correlational Studies: Reveal an association between two or more variables but do not confirm causality. Confounding variables are potential issues.
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Experiment: A study where participants are randomly assigned to different levels or conditions of one or more independent variables.
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Random Assignment: Every participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group.
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Between-Groups Design: Participants experience only one level of the independent variable.
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Within-Design: All participants experience different levels of the independent variable.
Introduction to Data Ethics
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Open Science: An approach to research that encourages collaboration, and including the sharing of research methodology, data, and statistical analyses to permit others to question and replicate findings.
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Preregistration: Recommended open science practice in which researchers outline their research design and analysis plan before completing the study.
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HARKing: Hypothesizing After the Results are Known (a concern in data analysis).
Frequency Distributions
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Raw Score: Data point not yet transformed or analyzed.
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Frequency Distribution: Shows the pattern of the data by counting or determining the proportion of each possible value of a given variable.
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Frequency Table: Visual depiction of how often each value occurs, with values listed in the first column and frequency in the second.
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Grouped Frequency Table: Shows frequencies within a range or interval.
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Histogram: Bar graph depiction of one variable on X-axis, representing values; Y-axis represents frequency or proportion of each value.
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Data Examples: Data on volcanoes per country.
Shapes of Distributions
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Normal Distribution: A specific frequency distribution that is bell-shaped, symmetric, and unimodal.
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Skewed Distribution: A distribution where one tail is pulled away from the center. Positive skew is when the right tail is longer; negative skew is when the left tail is longer.
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Description
Explore the foundational concepts of statistics in psychology through this introductory quiz. You'll learn about descriptive and inferential statistics, basic terminology, and the significance of sample data in understanding populations. Test your knowledge on sleep data analysis for different age groups.
