PSYC 2019H - Lecture 1: Introduction

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary goal of drawing conclusions in the context of research?

  • To create operational definitions for all variables
  • To establish whether a relationship between variables is supported by available data (correct)
  • To manipulate variables in a controlled environment
  • To identify all potential confounding variables

Which of the following best describes an operational definition regarding a variable?

  • The specific procedures used to measure or manipulate the variable (correct)
  • A general idea of the variable being studied
  • A theoretical interpretation of the variable
  • A broad conceptual understanding of the variable

Why is it inaccurate to infer a causal relationship from a correlational study?

  • Correlational studies don't have any statistically significant results
  • Correlational studies involve random assignment
  • Correlational studies use specific operational definitions
  • Correlational studies do not control for potential confounding variables (correct)

What is the defining feature of an experimental study?

<p>The use of random assignment of participants to different conditions (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does random assignment ensure in an experiment?

<p>That all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to any group or condition (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a 'between-groups' design, how many levels of independent variable does each participant experience?

<p>One and only one (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary focus of open science?

<p>Encouraging collaboration and sharing of all research components (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a goal of study preregistration?

<p>To increase transparency and reduce the risk of bias (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of a 'raw score'?

<p>It is a data point that has not undergone any alteration or analysis. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the purpose of a frequency distribution?

<p>To illustrate the pattern of a set of numbers by showing counts or proportions of each value. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of open science practices, what does preregistration refer to?

<p>Outlining the study design and analysis plan before collecting data. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of the provided speed skating data, which of the following best categorizes the 'Rank' variable?

<p>Ordinal variable (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of a frequency table?

<p>It displays each data value and the number of times that value occurred. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If a researcher is measuring the 'Time (min)' of the speed skaters, and is particularly interested in the differences in the skaters' times, which of the following best classifies this variable?

<p>Scale variable (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Based on Table 2-3, what is the total number of countries that have exactly 2 volcanos?

<p>10 (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of countries in the provided dataset have exactly 3 volcanoes?

<p>7.84% (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of variable is most suitable for categorizing the 'Country' of the speed skaters?

<p>Nominal variable (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Based on Table 2-3, which country has the second highest number of volcanos?

<p>Russia (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does HARKing, as described in the content, stand for?

<p>Hypothesizing After Results are Known (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many countries have between 10 and 19 volcanoes, according to the grouped frequency table data?

<p>5 (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In an experiment examining the effect of study method on exam scores, consider the hypothetical distribution of practice experiment described in Table 5.1, what is the independent variable?

<p>The number of days spent studying (Monday-Friday) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the same study assessing study techniques, what, in Table 5.1, represents a potential dependent variable?

<p>The exam scores (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the information provided, why might the values for Indonesia (45), Japan (40), Russia (55), and the US (81) in Table 2-3 be considered outliers?

<p>Their values are significantly higher than the majority of other countries listed. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A histogram, as described in the content, displays which type of data?

<p>Scale data with the frequencies on the y-axis. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Given the hypothetical distribution of practice experiment, what potentially confounding variable might be introduced if Group 1 only studied in the morning, whereas Group 3 only studied in the evening?

<p>Time of day variations in study concentration (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What shape is expected for a frequency distribution that has a bell-shaped, symmetric, and unimodal curve?

<p>Normal Distribution (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the concept of a test that consistently produces similar results when administered repeatedly?

<p>High reliability (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a positively skewed distribution, which tail of the distribution is pulled away from the center?

<p>The right tail is pulled. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A researcher develops a test for spatial reasoning, but finds that it mostly measures verbal comprehension. In this scenario, which concept is most compromised?

<p>Construct validity (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the provided data, what is the combined percentage of countries with either 1 or 2 volcanoes?

<p>50.98% (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If the histogram's x-axis represents the number of volcanoes and ranges from 0 to 17, and the y-axis represents frequency, what does a specific bar's height indicate?

<p>The number of countries that have a particular number of volcanoes. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Based on the grouped frequency table, how many countries have 40 or more volcanoes?

<p>3 (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the relationship between a population and a sample?

<p>A sample is a representative subset of the population that is studied. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the sleep study example, what do the descriptive statistics primarily communicate?

<p>The measured average sleep times and standard deviations for the specific samples of older and younger adults. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is the best example of a discrete variable?

<p>The number of siblings a person has (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Table 1-1, which type of variable is always discrete?

<p>Ordinal (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A researcher measures the reaction time of participants in milliseconds. Is this an example of a discrete or continuous variable? Which type of variable is it MOST likely to be classified as?

<p>Continuous, because it can take on an infinite number of potential values with more decimal places. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a study examining the effectiveness of a new medication, the researchers report a significant difference between the treatment and control groups. What does this inferential statistic primarily suggest?

<p>The medication may have an effect on the broader population, but this cannot be guaranteed based solely on the sample. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a nominal variable?

<p>Eye color (e.g., blue, green, brown) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A researcher wants to study the relationship between income and life satisfaction. If income is measured in specific dollar amounts and life satisfaction is assessed on a 7-point rating scale. What is the variable type for each? Select the option that matches Income and life satisfaction in that order.

<p>Ratio, Ordinal (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Grouped Frequency Table

A visual depiction of data that reports frequencies within a given interval rather than the frequencies for a specific value.

Histogram

A graph that looks like a bar graph but depicts just one variable, usually based on scale data with the values of the variable on the x-axis and the frequencies on the y-axis.

Skewed Distribution

Frequency distribution in which one tail of the distribution is pulled away from the center.

Normal Distribution

A specific frequency distribution with a bell-shaped, symmetric, and unimodal curve.

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Descriptive vs. Inferential Statistics

Descriptive stats helps us summarize collected data, like finding average sleep times. Inferential stats takes it a step further, trying to draw conclusions about a larger group (population) from a smaller group (sample).

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What is a variable?

A variable is a characteristic that changes in a study, like sleep duration. It can be something we measure or something we manipulate.

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Discrete vs. Continuous Variables

Discrete variables can only take specific values, like the number of cars you own. Continuous variables can take on a whole range of values, like your height.

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Nominal vs. Ordinal Variables

Nominal variables are categories with no inherent order, like hair color (blonde, brown, black). Ordinal variables have a clear order, like ranking movies from best to worst.

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Interval vs. Ratio Variables

Interval variables have an order AND equal intervals between values but no true zero (like temperature in Celsius). Ratio variables have an order, equal intervals, and a true zero (like height).

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Population and Sample in Research

The population is the entire group of interest, while the sample is a subset of that group. Psychologists typically study a sample to understand the whole population.

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Statistical Inference

The process of drawing conclusions about whether a particular relation between variables is supported by evidence.

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Operational Definition

Specifies the operations or procedures used to measure or manipulate a variable.

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Nominal Variable

A variable used for observations that have categories or names as their values, such as "male" or "female".

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Experiment

A study in which participants are randomly assigned to a condition or a level of one or more independent variables.

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Ordinal Variable

A variable used for observations that have rankings (e.g., 1st, 2nd, 3rd) as their values.

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Correlation

An association between two or more variables.

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Interval Variable

A variable that uses numbers as its values, where the difference between consecutive numbers is assumed to be equal.

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Ratio Variable

A variable that meets the criteria for an interval variable but also has a meaningful zero point. For example, a temperature of 0 degrees Celsius means absolute zero.

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Random Assignment

Every participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any of the groups or conditions.

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Scale Variable

A variable that meets the criteria for either an interval variable or a ratio variable.

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Between-Groups Design

An experiment in which participants experience only one level of the independent variable.

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Independent Variable

The variable that is manipulated or observed in an experiment to determine its potential effect on the dependent variable.

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Within-Design

An experiment in which all participants in the study experience the different levels of the independent variable.

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Open Science

An approach to research that encourages collaboration and includes the sharing of research methodology, data, and statistical analyses, allowing others to question and recreate findings.

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Dependent Variable

The variable that is measured or observed in an experiment and is expected to be influenced by the independent variable.

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Confounding Variable

A variable that systematically varies with the independent variable, making it difficult to determine the true cause of the observed effect.

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Preregistration

Researchers develop a detailed research plan, including hypotheses, data collection methods, and analysis strategies, before actually conducting the study.

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HARKing (Hypothesizing After the Results are Known)

Involves formulating hypotheses after observing the results of a study. It is considered problematic because it can lead to bias and unreliable conclusions.

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Raw Score

An individual data point that has not yet been transformed or analyzed. It's a raw piece of information.

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Frequency Distribution

A way of organizing data by showing how often each possible value of a variable occurs. It helps to understand the distribution of scores in a dataset.

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Frequency Table

A table that lists each value of a variable and its corresponding frequency. It provides a clear visualization of the data distribution.

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Volcanoes Around the World Table

A dataset that lists the number of volcanoes in various countries around the world, showcasing a diverse range of volcanic activity from low numbers to high numbers.

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Study Notes

PSYC 2019H - Lecture 1: Introduction and Basic Concepts

  • Basic Terminology: Descriptive statistics organize, summarize, and communicate numerical observations. Inferential statistics use sample data to estimate characteristics of a larger population. A population includes all possible observations. A sample is a subset of the population.

  • Descriptive Statistics: A lecture example provided data on total sleep time for younger and older adults. The mean sleep time for younger adults was 472.88 minutes with a standard deviation of 70.42. Mean sleep time for older adults was 391.42 with a standard deviation of 72.29.

  • Inferential Statistics: Sleep time for older adults was significantly less than for younger (t(46) = 3.95, p < .001). Results from the sample are generalized to ALL young and older adults with caution.

  • Variables: Variables are observations of physical, attitudinal, and behavioral qualities that can assume different values.

  • Discrete Observations: These variables only accept specific numerical values, like whole numbers with no values between them (e.g., 1, 2, 3)

  • Continuous Observations: These variables can take on any value within a given range and include decimal values.

  • Variable Types:

  • Nominal: Variables with categories or names as values (e.g., gender, eye color)

  • Ordinal: Variables with rankings as values (e.g., rank in a competition)

  • Interval: Variables with numerical values where the distance between consecutive numbers is equal (e.g., temperature).

  • Ratio: Interval variables with a meaningful zero point (e.g., height, weight). "Scale variables" often refer to Interval or Ratio variables.

  • Independent and Dependent Variables:

  • Independent Variable: Variables manipulated or observed to determine its effect on a dependent variable.

  • Dependent Variable: Outcome variable hypothesized to be influenced by the independent variable.

  • Confounding Variable: A confounding variable systematically varies with the independent variable so the influence of that variable cannot be logically discerned during analysis.

  • Reliability and Validity:

  • Reliability: Consistency of a measure.

  • Validity: Extent to which a test measures what it intends to.

Introduction to Hypothesis Testing

  • Hypothesis Testing: Process of drawing conclusions regarding relationships between variables, supported by evidence.

  • Operational Definition: Precise specification of operations/procedures used to measure or manipulate a variable.

  • Example: In a study on infant health, a researcher conducted surveys on 1000 pregnant women to analyse if exercise has a positive impact on newborn health outcomes. A positive correlation was observed.

  • Correlational Studies: Reveal an association between two or more variables but do not confirm causality. Confounding variables are potential issues.

  • Experiment: A study where participants are randomly assigned to different levels or conditions of one or more independent variables.

  • Random Assignment: Every participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group.

  • Between-Groups Design: Participants experience only one level of the independent variable.

  • Within-Design: All participants experience different levels of the independent variable.

Introduction to Data Ethics

  • Open Science: An approach to research that encourages collaboration, and including the sharing of research methodology, data, and statistical analyses to permit others to question and replicate findings.

  • Preregistration: Recommended open science practice in which researchers outline their research design and analysis plan before completing the study.

  • HARKing: Hypothesizing After the Results are Known (a concern in data analysis).

Frequency Distributions

  • Raw Score: Data point not yet transformed or analyzed.

  • Frequency Distribution: Shows the pattern of the data by counting or determining the proportion of each possible value of a given variable.

  • Frequency Table: Visual depiction of how often each value occurs, with values listed in the first column and frequency in the second.

  • Grouped Frequency Table: Shows frequencies within a range or interval.

  • Histogram: Bar graph depiction of one variable on X-axis, representing values; Y-axis represents frequency or proportion of each value.

  • Data Examples: Data on volcanoes per country.

Shapes of Distributions

  • Normal Distribution: A specific frequency distribution that is bell-shaped, symmetric, and unimodal.

  • Skewed Distribution: A distribution where one tail is pulled away from the center. Positive skew is when the right tail is longer; negative skew is when the left tail is longer.

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