PSY270 Cognition: Bilingualism

• PSY270: Cognition: The Machinery of the Mind is instructed by Joanna Dudek, PhD.
• Joanna Dudek can be reached at [email protected].
• Office hours are Tuesdays from 11am-12pm.
• The textbook is "Cognitive Psychology: Connecting mind, research and everyday experience" (5th ed.) by E.B. Goldstein (2018), Cengage Learning.
• CogLab access is required.
• Course Link: https://student.cengage.com/course-link/MTPP4455QQBW
• Course Key: MTPP4455QQBW

Bilingualism

• Monolinguals typically have language specialization in the left hemisphere.
• One hypothesis suggests that bilingual representation in the brain differs from monolingual representation.
• Neuropsychological evidence indicates that brain damage in bilingual speakers can affect one language more than others.
• In a case study, a patient with a brain tumor experienced aphasia in their third and fourth-learned languages, while their native and second languages remained unaffected.
• Another case study involved a Swiss German speaker proficient in French and Italian; following a stroke, all languages were initially impaired, but only the native language, Swiss German, did not recover.
• Another idea posits that bilingual representation mirrors monolingual representation in the brain.
• Experimental task evidence indicates that similar brain areas are used for language tasks in both languages, especially for semantic processing.
• Syntactic tasks may engage different brain regions based on the age of language acquisition.
• The neurological basis of syntax varies for languages learned earlier compared to later.

Problem Solving & Creativity

• A problem is an obstacle between a current state and a desired goal.
• Overcoming the obstacle is not immediately obvious and requires mental effort.
• Problems vary in complexity and can be either well-defined or ill-defined.

The Gestalt Approach

• According to Gestalt psychologists, problem-solving relies on how a problem is represented and how its representation is restructured.
• Restructuring involves changing your perspective on the problem.

Insight in Problem Solving

• Insight is a sudden realization of a problem's solution, often called the "Aha!" moment.
• Insight often requires problem restructuring.
• A 1987 study by Metcalfe & Wiebe researched insight vs. non-insight problems
• The study used warmth judgments (scale 1-7) every 15 seconds, hypothesizing differences in progression feelings for insight vs. non-insight problems.
• Algebra problems from textbooks are examples of non-insight problems.
• Non-insight problems are analytical and solved through systematic analysis.
• Insight problems are solved suddenly, while non-insight problems are solved gradually.
• A 2016 study by Salvi et al. found insight-based solutions are more accurate.
• Insight-based solutions arise from unconscious, holistic processing, free from irrelevant distractions.
• Analytical solutions rely on working memory and are more prone to error.

Obstacles to Problem Solving

• Functional fixedness limits an object's use to its familiar functions, such as in Duncker's candle problem.
• Viewing boxes as containers hindered their use as candle supports; overcoming this enhances problem-solving.
• Maier's (1931) two-string problem demonstrates how the function of pliers as a gripping tool can obscure their use as a weight.
• The solution was found once participants changed how they thought about the function of pliers.
• Mental set is a preconceived notion on how to approach a problem.
• It is based on past experiences and can hinder simpler solutions.
• Mental set limits thinking by relying on familiar strategies, even when ineffective.
• Functional fixedness limits thinking by restricting how objects are used, preventing creativity.

Information-Processing Approach

• Newell & Simon (1972) described problem-solving as a search between the posed problem and its solution.
• The problem space is defined by the initial state, intermediate states, and the goal state.
• Operators are actions that move the problem from one state to another.
• The Tower of Hanoi is an example of this problem-solving approach.
• In means-end analysis, the goal is to reduce differences between the initial and goal states.
• Subgoals are intermediate states that lead closer to the ultimate goal.

Problem Difficulty

• Problem difficulty can be affected by how the problem is presented, using the example of the mutilated-checkerboard problem.
• Providing more information that points to the correct problem representation can make the problem easier to solve.

Using Analogies to Solve Problems

• This involves using a solution from a similar problem to guide the solution of a new one, known as "Analogical problem-solving."
• Analogical transfer refers to the transfer from one problem (source) to another (target).
• The target problem is the problem someone is trying to solve.
• The source problem is another problem with similarities to the target problem that offers a solution approach.
• The Duncker's Radiation Problem demonstrates that participants used analogical transfer from a similar story to solve the radiation problem.
• Analogies help in problem-solving.
• Analogical problem-solving involves noticing, mapping, and applying three steps.
• Noticing requires realizing two problems are analogous and prompting is often needed.
• Mapping involves pinpointing corresponding parts of each problem.
• Applying Mapping involves using the mapped structure to generate a new solution.
• Analogical encoding is the process of comparing two problems and identifying their similarities.
• Gentner & Goldin-Meadow (2003) studied negotiation strategies, finding "if-you-give-me-A, I'll-give-you-B" to be a trade-off strategy.
• A contingency strategy is when a person gets what they want if something else happens.
• Training in analogical encoding is effective for problem-solving.

Analogies in the Real World

• The analogical paradox suggests that applying analogies is easier in real-world settings than in a lab.
• In vivo problem-solving research involves observing how people solve problems in real-world situations.
• In vivo research captures naturalistic thinking but is time-consuming and hard to control.
• These studies suggest that analogies are important in real-world problem-solving like scientific discovery and product design.

How Experts Solve Problems

• Experts solve problems faster and more successfully in their field than beginners.
• Experts and novices organize knowledge about a topic differently.
• Experts spend more time analyzing the problem.
• Experts spend more time analyzing the problem.
• However, experts perform no better than novices when tackling problems outside their expertise.
• A disadvantage of expertise is a reduced openness to new perspectives.
• Expertise may limit flexible or creative thinking.
• Experts can be overconfident in their own understanding.
• Chi et al. (1982) stated knowledge is organized for easy access when needed.
• Novices organize knowledge by surface features, while experts organize it by structural features.
• Organizing knowledge by structural features is more effective.

Creative Problem Solving

• Creativity: innovative thinking, novel ideas, and/or new connections between existing ideas.
• Intelligence and creativity are not the same thing.
• Creativity requires divergent thinking, producing many potential solutions.
• Conventional IQ tests measure convergent thinking, focusing on one correct answer.
• Creative problem-solving is a process.
• Basadur et al. (2000) proposed a four-stage process: problem generation, formulation, solving, and implementation.
• Creativity isn't just about ideas but also recognizing, defining, and acting.
• Each stage uses different cognitive skills, ranging from divergent to convergent thinking.
• Smith et al. (1993) found preconceived ideas can inhibit creativity.
• Group brainstorming is encouraging the free expression of ideas for problem-solving.
• The goal is to enhance creativity, and being critical is not desired at this stage.
• Individual brainstorming is more effective than group brainstorming due to production blocking, evaluation apprehension, and social loafing.
• UofT study mentioned in the slides indicates a combined individual and group approach can be effective (generating ideas first before discussing).
• Citing Scott Berkun, solitary work is productive for programmers, designers, and managers.
• Creative cognition trains people to think creatively.
• Finke (1990, 1995) states preinventive forms are ideas preceding finished creative works.
• These ideas must be developed to become useful "inventions".

Enhancing Creativity

• Creative thinking appears to be declining (Kim, 2011).
• Reasons for the decline may include time spent on TV, social media, video games, and a lack of creative thinking emphasis in schools.
• Educators should encourage brainstorming, divergent thinking activities, field trips, flexible thinking opportunities, and confidence-building in children.

Creativity and the Brain

• Chi and Snyder's (2012) nine-dot problem study showed the left anterior temporal lobe (ATL) groups lower-level information into higher-level meaningful information.
• Right ATL is involved in insight or creative thinking.
• Decreased activation of left ATL had 40% of participants solving the problem.
• Kounios et al. (2006) recorded EEG brain activity for 2 seconds before a task.
• Frontal lobe activity increased before insight solutions, and occipital lobe activity for non-insight solutions.
• The brain's state before the problem predicted the solving approach.
• The default mode network (DMN) is associated with mind-wandering and creative thinking.
• Baird et al. (2012) discuss incubation: generating ideas after taking a "time out" from a problem.
• The Alternate Uses Task (AUS) was followed by an incubation period of difficult vs easy task.
• The performance on AUS increased by 40% following an easy task where mind wandering was high.
• Mind wandering facilitates creative incubation.
• Mayseless et al. (2015) completed the AUS task during fMRI.
• More originality/novelty was associated with greater DMN activity.
• The Executive Control Network (ECN) directs task attention.
• Ellamil et al. (2012) conducted an fMRI study of participants designing book covers
• ECN and DMV (dorsomedial prefrontal cortex) were more active during evaluation versus generation of ideas.
• It is a paradox since ECN may divert attention from unoriginal ideas (Beaty et al., 2015).
• Functional connectivity between DMN and ECN is stronger in highly creative individuals (Beaty et al., 2014).
• Referencing Kaufman and Gregoire (2015), common traits of creative people are imaginative play, passion, daydreaming, solitude, intuition, openness to experience, mindfulness, sensitivity, turning adversity into advantage, and thinking differently.

Final Exam Reminders

• Online CogLab participation (any 10 experiments) is due today.
• Final Exam is worth 35% of grade
• Tuesday, April 22nd, from 5:00 pm - 7:00 pm in KN 137
• Covers all course material: Unit 1, Unit 2, Unit 3, with ~20% emphasis on Units 1 & 2, and ~80% emphasis on Unit 3
• The outline will be posted on Quercus.
• The final will be composed of multiple-choice questions (65 marks).
• The final will include short answer questions (30 marks), fill-in-the-blank, matching, and 5 short-answer questions.