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• Biodiversity is the variety of different kinds of living organisms which maintains a balanced environment.
• Animals, plants, fungi, and microorganisms work together in ecosystems to form a web that maintains and supports life.
• There are three levels of biodiversity: ecosystem diversity, species diversity, and genetic diversity.
• It is estimated that 3 to 30 million species are currently living on Earth.

Loss of Biodiversity

• Biodiversity loss is the decrease in the number of species within an ecosystem.
• Humans need to use resources wisely and conserve in order to maintain the balance in ecosystems through sustainable development.
• Reduced biodiversity can lead to food supply vulnerabilities, fresh water supply interruptions/shortages, increase vulnerability to natural disasters, and increased zoonotic diseases.

Biome Definition

• A biome is a geographical region with a distinct climate supporting specific plants and animals.
• Distinct climate (average yearly rainfall and temperature) and soil type determine which plants can grow there.
• Specific plant types support specific animal species.

Biome Identification and Endemic Species

• Biomes are identified by the type of vegetation (plants) found there.
• Endemic species are plants or animals restricted to a specific area or biome and not found elsewhere.
• Climate is determined by average rainfall and temperature.

Biome Classification

• Biomes are classified as terrestrial (land) or aquatic (water).

South African Biomes

• South Africa has 8 terrestrial biomes and is one of the richest, most species-diverse areas in the world. You need to know their location on a map.

Fynbos

• The Fynbos biome is known for its high biodiversity (over 8500 species) and a high number of endemic species only found in the Fynbos biome.

Fynbos Biome Details

• The name 'Fynbos' refers to the small shrubs with fine leaves found in this biome, mainly in the south-western and southern parts of the Western Cape Province.
• It is a World Heritage Site with at least 8,570 species of flowering plants, 68% of which are endemic, often found in small areas.
• The climate features cold, wet winters and hot, dry summers with strong winds and regular fires.
• Fynbos soil is sandy and alkaline near the coast, becoming more acidic further inland.
• It consists of low shrubs with fine leaves like ericas, and leafless, grass-like plants like restios; some proteas can grow into large bushes.
• Fynbos plants survive in poor soil and hot, dry conditions with small leathery leaves or succulent leaves for water storage.
• The biome has low nutrient levels, supporting smaller herbivores/carnivores, and needs fire for its life cycle.
• Main plant types include proteoids, restoids, ericoids, and geophytes.
• The Fynbos biome faces human impact through habitat loss due to agriculture, increasing urban areas, and too-frequent fires.
• Remember to link climate/soil to the type of plant and animals in the biome.

Savanna Definition

• 'Savanna' refers to vegetation of mixed grassland and trees, covering 46% of South Africa.
• The climate has summer rainfall, extremely hot summers, and cold winters with little rain.
• Soil varies from porous, sandy soil supporting broad-leafed plants to nutrient-rich clay supporting small-leaved plants and thorn trees.
• Richer soils provide nutrients for a large variety of plants, including grasses and trees like Acacia, marula, baobab, mopani, and bushwillow.
• The vegetation supports large herbivores, providing food for large carnivores, and is known for the 'BIG 5' animals, attracting tourists.
• This biome is threatened by human activities, agriculture, livestock grazing, poaching, as well as long droughts.

Wetlands Definition

• Wetlands are areas with waterlogged soils or shallow water, either permanently or seasonally covered by water.

Wetland Importance

• Wetlands are essential to water security, play an important role in the water cycle, control floods, filter and improve water quality, hold nutrients, and provide wildlife habitats.
• 50% of South Africa's wetlands have been lost due to human influence, and efforts are needed to safeguard and rehabilitate them.

Biosphere Definition

• The biosphere includes the parts of the Earth where living organisms are found.
• It extends 8km upward from the surface and 11km downward into the crust.
• The biosphere includes interactions with the atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water), and lithosphere (rock and soil).

Atmosphere Definition

• The atmosphere is a layer of gases around the Earth, held in place by Earth's gravity.
• It is composed of 78% Nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.03% Carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases.
• The atmosphere supports life by trapping radiant energy from the sun, keeping temperatures moderate through the greenhouse effect.
• The ozone layer within the atmosphere reflects harmful UV radiation.
• It contains oxygen used by many life forms.

Lithosphere Definition

• The lithosphere consists of the soil and rocks that make up the upper layers of the Earth's surface.
• The outer, solid layer of the Earth forms continents, which include mountains, landforms, plateaus, and coastal plains.
• A thin layer of soil (weathered rock) provides plants with minerals and holds water.

Hydrosphere Definition

• The hydrosphere includes all the water on the planet: oceans, rivers, lakes, vapor and underground water.
• 97% of it is ocean water.
• 3% is fresh water, and only 1% is fit to consume.
• Water is essential for life on Earth.

Ecosystems

• An ecosystem is an area where there are relationships between living organisms and their non-living environment.
• Ecosystems include both living organisms and the non-living environment.
• Ecosystems can be large or small, like a river, grassland or fallen rock.
• Ecology is the study of these interactions with their surroundings.

Terminology

• Organism/Individual: Single animal/organism.
• Population: Group of organisms of the same species living in the same place.
• Community: All animal and plant populations in an area.
• Habitat: Specific place where an organism lives.

Ecosystem Terminology

• Ecosystem = Community + non-living environment.
• Biome = Ecosystem + ecosystem + ecosystem.
• Biosphere = Biome + biome + biome.
• A hierarchy exists from (smallest to biggest): Organism → population → community → ecosystem → biome → biosphere.

Other Terminology

• Species: Organisms with similar physical and biological characteristics that can breed together and produce fertile offspring.
• Population: Group of organisms of the same species living in the same area able to breed.
• Community: All different populations that live in the same area.
• Ecosystem: An area in which plant and animal populations community interact with their non-living environment.
• Biome: A group of ecosystems with a distinct climate and a similar community including plants and animals.
• Endemic: Species of organism that is unique to a particular region.
• Symbiotic: Close physical association between two different organisms.
• Mutualism: Two organisms in a symbiotic relationship in which both benefit.
• Lichen: Association (mutualism) between an algae and fungi.
• Abiotic: An ecosystem's non-living chemical and physical factors.
• Biotic: Living component of an ecosystem.
• Habitat: The area where an organism lives.

Ecosystem Components

• Ecosystems include a community of organisms (various species) and the non-living environment.
• Living factors are biotic factors which interact and rely on abiotic factors.
• Non-living factors are abiotic factors which are physical and chemical factors that influence all those components.

Factors

• Biotic factors include producers (autotrophs), consumers (heterotrophs), and decomposers (saprophytes).
• Abiotic factors include physiographic factors (geography), edaphic factors (soil), and physical factors (climate).

Abiotic Factors - Physiographic Factors (Geography):

• Aspect refers to the direction in which a surface faces in relation to the sun.
• Slope is the gradient of the land.
• Altitude is the height of land above sea level.

Aspect Details

• North-facing slopes receive more direct sunlight for longer periods leading to warmer, drier conditions with less decomposition and sparsely vegetated areas.
• South-facing slopes receive less direct sunlight and lead to cooler, moist conditions and more decomposition and lush vegetation.

Abiotic Factors - Edaphic Factors (Soil):

• Type and texture of soil determines the type and amount of plants growing there.
• Plants absorb water and minerals from soil.
• Sandy soil consists of large particles with lots of air spaces, results in low humus content and poor water retention, and is infertile
• Clay soil consists of very small particles with few air spaces, results in low humus content, high water retention that can cause roots to rot, and is infertile.
• Loam soil consists of mixed particle sizes that result in well-aerated soil, results in high humus content, moderate water retention and drainage, and is the most fertile.

Humus

• Humus is formed by the decomposition process of dead plants and animals.
• It gives nutrients to soil, allows air spaces, releases nutrients improves water retention, and makes soil more fertile

Soil Properties Terminology

• Water retention is describes soil's ability to hold water.
• Water drainage describes how quickly water runs through the soil.

Additional Edaphic Factors

• pH is how acid/alkaline the soil .
• Air content is found in the number and size of air spaces between soil particles.
• Soil temperature is influenced by aspect, water content, color of soil and other factors and remains relatively constant below 20-40cm.
• Higher temp = increased decay of organic matter if soil is moist & BUT dry soil has less decay; low temp= unfavorable for plants and animal decay.
• Nutrient content comes from the type of rocks in the lithosphere: Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, iron, magnesium & calcium are essential for plant growth.
• Humus is the organic material, and releases nutrients and separates air spaces.

Abiotic Factors-Physical Factors (Climate)

• Light and length of day have an affect on plants and animals.

Light and Plant Growth Terms

• Diurnal animals are more active during the daylight.
• Nocturnal animals are more active during the night time.
• Plant growth of photoperiodism is the detection of sunlight hours to determine the time of year.
• Tropism (phototropism) explains the plant growth response to light stimulus that encourages photosynthesis

Temperature

• Temperature relates to sunlight which affects the distribution of plants and animals.

• Different temperature regulating mechanisms of animals:

  • Endothermic animals can internally regulate their temperatures.
  • Ectothermic animals rely on external environments.

Surviving Factors

• Animals have different mechanisms for surviving extreme temperatures:
  • Migration involves movement from one area to another, caused by seasonal changes.
  • Hibernation involves reduced winter activity and winter 'sleep'.
  • Aestivation summer inactivity and summer 'sleep'.
  • Dormancy for some plant species where they survive cold seasons by becoming dormant.
• Water availability affects the amount, frequency & distribution of plants and animals.
• The atmosphere is a source of carbon dioxide and oxygen.
• Wind influences rainfall which affects the types of plants and animals; strong winds increases transpiration.
• Water availability affects distribution, frequency, and amount of plants/animals. It is recycled in land/oceans/atmospheres. high humidity can slow down loss through transpiration.
• Plants are in 3 groups, and are classified based on the amount of water they require to grow: Hydrophytes, Mesophytes and Xerophytes.

Cold Blooded Details

• Ectothermic (cold-blooded) animals can't regulate their body temperature; their temperature varies with the environment.

Warm Blooded Details

• Endothermic (warm-blooded) animals' brains regulate body temperature to maintain constant body temperature.

Other Terms

• Aestivation is dormancy in aquatic organisms which is used to withstand warmer temperatures/dry periods.
• Hibernation is dormancy for endothermic animals. It is characterized by deep-sleep and a slowed metabolism.
• Deciduous plants lose leaves in winter and slow metabolic processes to endure winter conditions.

Water

• Water availability impacts plants and animals across various metrics: abundance, distribution, or frequency.
• Water availability is recycled throughout land, oceans, and atmospheres.
• Humidity refers to the amount of water vapor. High humidity slows down water loss through transpiration.
• Plants are classified in three groups based on these water requirements: hydrophytes, mesophytes and xerophytes
  • Xerophytes have adaptations to prevent water loss.
  • Mesophytes survive with a moderate water supply
  • Hydrophytes are adapted to live in water areas.

Atmospheric Gases

• Atmospheric gases come from plants that perform cell respiration. Carbon dioxide is the main atmospheric gas.

The Green House Effect

• The Greenhouse effect traps the sun's radiance because there is an excess of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere due to human activity.

Fire and Wind

• Wind refers to moving air currents that increase water loss and transpiration. Needle-like leaves, and thick waxy cuticles help plants survive it.
• Some protea species need it as part of their cycle.

Ecosystems and Factors

• Biotic factors make up the living factors like animals, microorganisms and fungi
• Abiotic factors are the non-living components that influence an ecosystem

Biotic Interaction

• Biotic interaction deals with Symbiosis between organisms through mutualism, parasitism or commensalism.

Producer Term

• Producers or autotrophs make their own food by using the energy of sunlight and photosynthesis to make their own food. The rest of it is transferred to primary consumers.

Consumer Term and its types

• Consumers (or Heterotrophs) eat other organisms to power their own living activities.

Consumer Types

• **Primary consumers **eat plants.
  • Secondary consumers eat the consumers.
• Tertiary Consumers eat secondary consumers.
• Omnivores eat plants and meat.
• Carnivores eat meat
• Predators kill and eat their prey.
• Scavengers eat carrion.

Decomposers Term

• Decomposers or Saprophytes are Bacteria and fungi that break down waste with enzymes and return the nutrients back to the soil through recycling.

Energy Flow in Ecosystems

• All organisms need power to sustain living processes.
• Green producers make energy during photosynthesis, and that power passes from one organism to the next which flows in one direction.
• Only the level below it creates energy for consumers to depend on.

Energy Flow Terms

• New energy cannot is not destroyed nor can it be created.
• 4-5 lengths are limited through the heat lost.
• Not all energy is transferred to the next level, as often it is used by other organisms or lost in the cycle of life.

Food Web Info

• Savannah web is the most accurate picture of feeding relationships/energy flow, and consists of all the interlinking chains.

Pyramids

• Pyramids are like bar graphs sideways.
• Food webs and chains display organisms that are supported at each level.

The Three Types of Pyramids

Numbers

Show you the number of organisms

Biomass

Shows the mass of all material.

Energy

Shows KJ that goes from level to level

Always label organisms names levels Triangle or seperate bars can display pyramids.

Rules for Food Chains

• Food chains are from left to right, do not include a sun, sunlight isn't an animal, energy in shown with arrows pointing into the eater

Nutrient Cycles

General Cycle Info

• Cycles occur during our earth’s atmosphere. There is a fixed amount of atoms on Earth that circulate through spheres and organism, and cannot be created nor destroyed.
• Ex:* Lithosphere - the rocks break down to form soil Minerals - soil can absorb into tissues to formulate plants Animals and plants that digest the minerals from the rocks are transferred. After the fact, animals that defecate, or die release nutrients. Nitrogen, carbon, water, and oxygen cycle can be explained in missing pieces filling words.

Water Cycle

• Evaporation occurs when heat evaporates an area. Transpiration, evaporation,condensation, then plants loose water through the stomata on their skin.

• Transportation describes the atmosphere-movement.

• Precipitation releases a form of rain from the clouds.

• Run-off describes how water collects into lakes or oceans once it runs-off the land.

• Infiltration occurs when water soaks and the soil percolates.

• Ground water occurs when some water infiltrates inside the areas, they can cause the most water damage or damage of value

Oxygen Cycle

• There is a transition of the atmosphere between the Lithosphere, biosphere and atmosphere through several steps and methods

1. Plants photosynthesises which releases oxygen.
2. Photolysis breaks down nitrates by using the energy from ultraviolet light.
3. Weathering limestone.
4. Dissolving organisms decompose the decaying remains.

Carbon Cycle

• Carbon element form proteins or make us of the body or tissue.
• Carbon traps carbon and releases it through several methods and processes.

Processes - ( Carbon emissions release into the atmosphere)

• Cell respiration
• Combustion of fuels
• Decomposition of dead animal and plants

Processes - (Carbon is taken out of an atmosphere)

• Photosynthesis
• Dissolving carbon
• Fossilization
• Both carbon and oxygen cycles are equally run
• Important Note-Human activities can increase or decrease rates that damage these cycles, such as industrialization.*

The oxygen cycle ensures a good balance is ensured in both oxygen and carbon (atmospheric) in our world.

Nitrogen Cycle

• Nitrogen is the element that the body needs and uses to make building material and tissue. Atmosphere Important Note Plants and animals do not use their own atmosphere.
• Plants are able to absorb atmospheric nitrogen, because they do not contain their own atmosphere.

These can be converted, and are:

• Returning nitrogen to the surface
• Fixing nitrates or bacteria.
• The roots of plants and bacterias, are also converted as well

Electrical - Lightening can convert nitrogen into fertilizer Industrial - Humans made it so there are more processes to convert nitrogen so that fertilizers can reproduce ammonia back into the soil

Denitrification can be wasted if a cycle by bacterias is turned to the atmosphere, because the bacteria will spend to much money on fertilizers.

Steps of Ammonia

• The 1st process: Ammonia is released by decomposing a living decaying remains of dead plants and animals
• The 2nd: Ammonia is converted
• The 2nd Process: Plants have absorbed nitrogen that contain tissue, in a method known as Assimilation