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Questions and Answers
Which of the following is NOT one of the eight key characteristics shared by all living organisms?
Which of the following is NOT one of the eight key characteristics shared by all living organisms?
What do macromolecules primarily consist of?
What do macromolecules primarily consist of?
What is the correct order of biological organization starting from the smallest unit?
What is the correct order of biological organization starting from the smallest unit?
Which process helps maintain internal stability within living organisms?
Which process helps maintain internal stability within living organisms?
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Which reasoning process starts with specific observations to form a general conclusion?
Which reasoning process starts with specific observations to form a general conclusion?
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What function distinguishes living organisms in their ability to respond to changes?
What function distinguishes living organisms in their ability to respond to changes?
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Which level of organization occurs immediately after macromolecules in the biological hierarchy?
Which level of organization occurs immediately after macromolecules in the biological hierarchy?
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What is one of the main functions of energy processing in living organisms?
What is one of the main functions of energy processing in living organisms?
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What describes the process of hydrolysis as mentioned in the content?
What describes the process of hydrolysis as mentioned in the content?
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Which functional groups are attached to the central carbon of an amino acid?
Which functional groups are attached to the central carbon of an amino acid?
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What is the nature of the reaction that forms peptide bonds?
What is the nature of the reaction that forms peptide bonds?
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In the nucleotide structure, what distinguishes the carbon residues of the pentose sugar?
In the nucleotide structure, what distinguishes the carbon residues of the pentose sugar?
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Which component is NOT part of a nucleotide?
Which component is NOT part of a nucleotide?
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How many common amino acids are found in proteins?
How many common amino acids are found in proteins?
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What is the role of the R group in an amino acid?
What is the role of the R group in an amino acid?
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What happens during the synthesis reaction of amino acids?
What happens during the synthesis reaction of amino acids?
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What principle is described by the preservation of slight beneficial variations in individuals of a species?
What principle is described by the preservation of slight beneficial variations in individuals of a species?
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What must occur for evolution by natural selection to take place?
What must occur for evolution by natural selection to take place?
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What does the term 'microevolution' refer to?
What does the term 'microevolution' refer to?
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Which concept explains that organisms must face a struggle for existence due to overproduction?
Which concept explains that organisms must face a struggle for existence due to overproduction?
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What is the outcome when a population experiences natural selection?
What is the outcome when a population experiences natural selection?
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Which of the following best describes the relationship between natural selection and populations?
Which of the following best describes the relationship between natural selection and populations?
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What is the significance of heritable variations in the process of natural selection?
What is the significance of heritable variations in the process of natural selection?
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What is the primary function of messenger RNA in the process of transcription?
What is the primary function of messenger RNA in the process of transcription?
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How do RNA nucleotides pair with the DNA template strand during transcription?
How do RNA nucleotides pair with the DNA template strand during transcription?
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In which direction is RNA synthesized during transcription?
In which direction is RNA synthesized during transcription?
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What role does RNA polymerase play in transcription?
What role does RNA polymerase play in transcription?
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What initiates the translation process in protein synthesis?
What initiates the translation process in protein synthesis?
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What happens to the ribosomal subunits during the initiation of translation?
What happens to the ribosomal subunits during the initiation of translation?
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What is the function of the initiator tRNA during translation?
What is the function of the initiator tRNA during translation?
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Which of the following is true regarding the function of the ribosome in translation?
Which of the following is true regarding the function of the ribosome in translation?
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What is the outcome of stabilizing selection?
What is the outcome of stabilizing selection?
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How does directional selection affect phenotypes?
How does directional selection affect phenotypes?
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Which selection model selects against the average phenotype?
Which selection model selects against the average phenotype?
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What process involves the transcription of DNA instructions onto messenger RNA?
What process involves the transcription of DNA instructions onto messenger RNA?
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In the context of the Central Dogma, what is the role of ribosomes?
In the context of the Central Dogma, what is the role of ribosomes?
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What happens to the spectrum of observed phenotypes during directional selection?
What happens to the spectrum of observed phenotypes during directional selection?
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Which of the following correctly describes the impact of diversifying selection?
Which of the following correctly describes the impact of diversifying selection?
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What is the first step in the process of protein synthesis according to the Central Dogma?
What is the first step in the process of protein synthesis according to the Central Dogma?
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What is the structure difference between deoxyribose and ribose?
What is the structure difference between deoxyribose and ribose?
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How do purines and pyrimidines differ in structure?
How do purines and pyrimidines differ in structure?
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What is the orientation of the two strands in a double stranded DNA molecule?
What is the orientation of the two strands in a double stranded DNA molecule?
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Which pairs correctly match the bases in DNA?
Which pairs correctly match the bases in DNA?
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What part of a DNA molecule is located on the outside?
What part of a DNA molecule is located on the outside?
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Which type of nucleotide sugar is found in RNA?
Which type of nucleotide sugar is found in RNA?
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What type of bonding occurs between bases in a DNA molecule?
What type of bonding occurs between bases in a DNA molecule?
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What is the primary role of the hydroxyl group at the end of a growing polynucleotide chain?
What is the primary role of the hydroxyl group at the end of a growing polynucleotide chain?
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Study Notes
Properties of Life
- Living organisms share eight key characteristics or functions
- Order: Atoms -> Molecules -> Macromolecules (e.g., proteins, lipids, DNA, RNA, carbohydrates)
- Sensitivity or response to the environment: All living things respond to stimuli
- Reproduction: All living organisms reproduce to make new organisms
- Adaptation: Adjustments to their environment, which allow for survival
- Growth and development: Increase in size from birth, and or changes in form
- Regulation/homeostasis: Maintaining a stable internal environment
- Energy processing: Obtaining and using energy for life functions
- Evolution: Changes in genetic characteristics over time
Biological Levels of Organization
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Macromolecules build -> Organelles -> Cells -> Tissues -> Organs -> Organ Systems -> Organisms -> Populations -> Communities -> Ecosystems -> Biosphere.
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Organelles: Examples include the nucleus
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Cells: Examples include human blood cells
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Tissues: Examples include human skin tissue
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Organ Systems: Examples include the digestive system
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Organisms: Individual living things
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Populations: Groups of the same species
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Communities: Collection of different species in a given area
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Ecosystems: The interactions of communities with their environment
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Biosphere: All ecosystems on Earth
How Science Works
- Exploration and Discovery: Includes new technology, making observations, asking questions, serendipity, curiosity, exploring the literature, sharing data and ideas, finding inspiration.
- Gathering Data: Includes hypotheses, expected results/observations vs. actual observations, supporting, contradicting, surprising or inconclusive data, feedback and peer review, replication, coming up with new questions.
- Testing Ideas: Includes developing technology, addressing societal issues, building knowledge, informing policy, satisfying curiosity, solving everyday problems. Benefits and outcomes.
- Community Analysis and Feedback: Includes discussion with colleagues and publication.
Two Types of Reasoning
- Inductive Reasoning: Starts with observations and develops a general conclusion. Example: Observing members of a species are not identical and individuals compete for resources, leading to the conclusion that individuals most adapted to their environment are more likely to survive.
- Deductive Reasoning: Starts with a general idea and predicts specific outcomes. Example: If the average temperature in an ecosystem increases, individuals better adapted to warmer temperatures will outcompete those who are not.
Descriptive vs. Inferential Statistics
- Descriptive Statistics: Summarize observations from the real world.
- Inferential Statistics: Draws conclusions via inferences/inductions from observations in the real world to the real world laws
Phylogenetic Trees
- Rooted phylogenetic tree: An ancestral lineage gave rise to all organisms in the tree.
- Branch point: The place where two lineages diverged.
- Basal taxon: An early-evolved lineage that remains unbranched.
- Sister taxa: Two lineages that stem from the same branch point.
- Polytomy: A branch with more than two lineages stemming from a node.
Evolutionary Relationships (Vertebrates)
- A ladder-like tree, rooted by an organism with no vertebral column identifies branching points where characteristics are shared
Molecules (Hemoglobin)
- Molecules, including DNA, are composed of atoms
- Hemoglobin is a complex molecule, found in red blood cells
- Consists of a heme group, alpha and beta chains.
Water
- Polarity of water: Due to the differing electronegativities of hydrogen and oxygen, the slightly negative oxygen attracts the slightly positive hydrogens of another water molecule
- Hydrogen bonds: Attraction between the slightly negative oxygen on one molecule and slightly positive hydrogen of another water molecule
Nucleic Acids (DNA)
- DNA is a double helix structure
- Hydrogen bonds connect the DNA strands together.
- Nucleotides are the components of DNA, composed of nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar (deoxyribose), and one or more phosphate groups
Dehydration Reaction
- In dehydration synthesis reaction, two molecules of glucose are linked to form the disaccharide maltose
- Water molecule is formed as a byproduct
Hydrolysis Reaction
- The disaccharide maltose is broken down to form two glucose monomers with the addition of water.
- This reaction is the reverse of dehydration synthesis.
Amino Acids
- Amino acids have a central asymmetric carbon atom to which an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a unique side chain (R group) are attached.
- There are 20 common amino acids found in proteins.
Peptide Bonds
- Peptide bond formation is a dehydration synthesis reaction
- The carboxyl group of one amino acid is linked to the amino group of another amino acid
- Water molecule is released
Protein Structure
- Primary structure: Amino acid sequence
- Secondary structure: x helix
- Tertiary structure: Tertiary structure is a three-dimensional structure, created by folding and interaction of parts of the primary structure
- Quaternary structure: Multiple polypeptide chains are folded to create a single protein, examples include hemoglobin
Central Dogma of Biology
- The central dogma is the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein
- DNA replication is the duplication of DNA, which allows genetic information to be passed to offspring.
- DNA transcription is the conversion of DNA's genetic information into messenger RNA
- RNA translation is the conversion of mRNA to proteins.
Transcription in Prokaryotes
- mRNA, a copy of the DNA protein-coding information, has the same base sequence as one strand of DNA.
- mRNA nucleotides base pairs with the DNA template strand, mRNA synthesis is 5' to 3'.
- mRNA is synthesized by RNA polymerase
mRNA Processing
- Pre-mRNA is processed to produce the final mRNA that leaves the nucleus.
- Introns are removed and exons are spliced together.
- A 5' cap and 3' poly-A tail are added to the mRNA.
Translation
- mRNA is translated into protein through a series of stages
- Ribosomes contain the mRNA and tRNAs.
- The mRNA codes for the sequence of amino acids that form a protein.
Evolution
- Evolution: change in the genetic composition of a population over time
- Evolution by natural selection occurs when heritable variations lead to differential reproductive success
- Natural selection acts on individuals but only populations evolve as organisms with useful, heritable variations tend to survive and reproduce.
Evidence of Evolution
- Similar anatomical structures in different organisms suggest common ancestry
Speciation
- Evolution leads to new species, evolution within a population is microevolution. The origin of new species = macroevolution
- Biological species concept: Reproductive isolation between populations.
- Morphospecies concept: Morphologically distinct populations.
- Phylogenetic species concept: Smallest monophyletic group on a phylogenetic tree.
Reproductive Isolation Mechanisms
- Prezygotic isolation: Prevents mating or blocks fertilization
- Temporal isolation: Species breed different times
- Habitat isolation: Species have different habitats
- Behavioral isolation: Species have different courtship rituals
- Mechanical isolation: Species have incompatible reproductive structures
- Gametic isolation: Eggs and sperm are incompatible
- Postzygotic isolation: Occurs after fertilization
- Hybrid viability: Offspring fail to develop or survive
- Hybrid sterility: Offspring are infertile
- Hybrid breakdown: First-generation hybrids fertile, but subsequent generations infertile
Polyploidy and Sympatric Speciation
- Polyploidy: Organisms have more than two sets of chromosomes (autopolyploidy or allopolyploidy)
- Polyploidy and sympatric speciation: A mechanism for the origin of new species, via hybridization
Natural Selection
- Stabilizing Selection: Favors the average phenotype
- Directional Selection: Favors one extreme phenotype
- Diversifying Selection: Favors both extreme phenotypes, selection against the average phenotype.
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Description
Explore the essential characteristics that define living organisms and the biological levels of organization. This quiz covers important concepts such as reproduction, adaptation, and energy processing, as well as how complex structures are formed from macromolecules to ecosystems. Test your knowledge of life sciences!
