Principles of Sociology Flashcards

Sociology Fundamentals

• Sociology studies social reactions and exchanges in society, focusing on individual and group interactions influenced by societal structures.
• Empirical evidence is essential in sociology for understanding behavior and meanings.

Key Concepts in Sociology

• Social Institutions: Established patterns of behavior including family, education, religion, and political organization that govern interactions.
• Social Structure: The stable arrangement of institutions in society that influences how individuals interact, related to social change.
• Structure/Action Dichotomy: Individual agency involves personal actions, while social structure explains behavior within societal contexts.

Research Methodology

• Random Sample: A statistically representative selection from a larger population, allowing every member an equal chance of selection.
• Benefits of Random Sampling: Provides an accurate representation of the population while conserving resources.
• Scientific Method: Involves defining problems, reviewing literature, formulating hypotheses, selecting research designs, and drawing conclusions.

Variables in Research

• Independent Variable: The variable hypothesized to influence or cause changes in another variable.
• Dependent Variable: The response or measure influenced by the independent variable.

Ethical Considerations

• Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment: Ethical controversy from studying untreated syphilis in African American men under the guise of treatment, leading to mistrust in medical institutions.
• ASA Code of Ethics: Requires transparency in research funding to protect participants, ensure validity, and uphold human rights.

Theoretical Perspectives

• Conflict Theory: Views society as a battleground of conflicting interests, with power dynamics shaping social structures.
• Structural Functionalism: Considers society as a system that must address various functional needs for survival.
• Symbolic Interactionism: Examines how individuals assign meaning to objects and interactions, with a focus on micro-level interactions.

Cultural Concepts

• Culture: Encompasses social categories, beliefs, practices, and environments individuals engage with collectively.
• Material vs. Nonmaterial Culture: Material culture includes tangible items, while nonmaterial culture addresses shared meanings and values.
• Artifacts: Human-created objects that provide insight into the culture of their users.

Norms and Values

• Norms: Rules defining acceptable behavior, which vary by culture; can be formal (laws) or informal (folkways and mores).
• Folkways vs. Mores: Folkways are minor norms, whereas mores are strong norms tied to moral values.

Sanctions

• Positive Sanctions: Rewards for conforming behavior (e.g., awards).
• Negative Sanctions: Punishments for deviant behavior (e.g., fines).

Society and Culture

• Society Definition: A group in continuous interaction over time, with shared identity distinct from others.
• Cultural Continuity: Essential for passing down practices and beliefs from generation to generation.

Ethnocentrism vs. Cultural Relativism

• Ethnocentrism: Valuation of one's own culture over others, potentially leading to discrimination.
• Cultural Relativism: Belief in the equal value of all cultures, promoting understanding and acceptance.

Subcultures and Countercultures

• Subculture: A group with distinct values or norms that differ from the dominant culture (e.g., black culture).
• Counterculture: Groups that reject and attempt to change dominant societal values (e.g., certain youth movements).

Cultural Change

• Culture evolves through various factors including interactions, technological advancements, and shifting societal values, as outlined by Becker's theories.