Principles Influencing Learning
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Questions and Answers

Which of the following best describes the concept of learning, emphasizing its core attributes?

  • A relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience or practice. (correct)
  • A temporary shift in behavior due to external stimuli.
  • A physical change in the body influencing behavior.
  • An immediate reaction to a specific environmental condition.

A student consistently performs better on tasks they find enjoyable. Which principle of learning does this best illustrate?

  • Recency
  • Primacy
  • Intensity
  • Effect (correct)

According to the principles of learning, why would hands-on flight simulator training be more effective than simply reading about flight procedures?

  • The principle of primacy suggests that things learned first create a strong impression.
  • The principle of recency suggests that recently learned information is easily recalled.
  • The principle of effect suggests learning is weakened if its an unpleasant experience.
  • The principle of intensity suggests a student will learn more from the real thing than from a substitute. (correct)

A student is struggling to learn a new skill. Which factor, if improved, would most directly address the 'motivation' influence on learning?

<p>Providing clear and compelling reasons for the student to value the new skill. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is neuro-muscular coordination important for learning?

<p>It supports executing physical tasks and skills effectively. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do a learner's feelings of loneliness and isolation affect learning, according to the factors influencing learning?

<p>They hinder learning by negatively impacting psychological well-being. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What classroom modification would directly address the 'good working conditions' factor influencing learning?

<p>Ensuring the room has adequate lighting and a comfortable temperature. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A student with experience in web development learns a new programming language faster than someone without such experience. Which factor influencing learning does this scenario exemplify?

<p>Background experiences (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A student is struggling to retain information when studying for long periods. Which adjustment, based on the principles of effective learning, would likely improve their retention?

<p>Scheduling shorter, more frequent study sessions with breaks in between. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A researcher aims to condition a dog to salivate at the sound of a bell using classical conditioning. What is the most critical initial step?

<p>Identifying a neutral stimulus that does not initially elicit salivation. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A therapist is helping a client overcome a fear of public speaking. Using classical conditioning principles, which approach would be LEAST effective?

<p>Encouraging the client to avoid public speaking situations to reduce anxiety. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In classical conditioning, what is the role of the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)?

<p>To naturally and automatically trigger a response without prior learning. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios best illustrates the concept of a conditioned response (CR)?

<p>A child cries upon seeing a needle after previously receiving a painful injection. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios best illustrates classical conditioning?

<p>A student feels anxious before a test after repeatedly experiencing stress during exams. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Pavlov's experiment, what role did the bell play before conditioning occurred?

<p>Neutral Stimulus (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the length of a learning period affect learning effectiveness, and what is the optimal approach?

<p>Learning periods should be neither too short to prevent adequate practice, nor too long to avoid fatigue. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes classical conditioning from other types of learning theories?

<p>Classical conditioning focuses on involuntary emotional or physiological responses to stimuli. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is classical conditioning sometimes referred to as 'substitution learning'?

<p>Because a neutral stimulus becomes capable of eliciting a response similar to the unconditioned stimulus. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the core association that is formed during classical conditioning?

<p>A bond between the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A dog owner uses an electric fence to keep their dog from running away. The dog receives a shock (unpleasant stimulus) when it gets too close to the boundary. Over time, the dog learns to stay within the yard. Which type of learning is best exemplified here?

<p>Operant Conditioning (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

When is Spaced learning more advantageous than massed learning?

<p>When needing to remember information long-term. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During the training stage of classical conditioning, how are the conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (UCS) presented?

<p>The CS and UCS are presented simultaneously or the CS is presented immediately before the UCS. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In classical conditioning, what happens during the 'After Training' stage?

<p>The conditioned stimulus elicits the conditioned response (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following principles of classical conditioning involves the weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response?

<p>Extinction (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Sensory memory's primary role is to:

<p>Act as a filter, briefly holding information to determine its relevance. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes the key difference between iconic and echoic memory?

<p>Iconic memory stores visual information for approximately one second, whereas echoic memory stores auditory information for up to two seconds.. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Short-term memory differs from sensory memory in that it:

<p>Holds the contents of our attention after perceptual analysis. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a defining characteristic of short-term memory?

<p>Unlimited storage capacity (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The ability to remember the plot of a novel you read last year primarily relies on:

<p>Long-term memory (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A child is initially scared of all dogs after being bitten by one. Over time, the child learns to only fear the specific breed that bit them. This change demonstrates the difference between:

<p>Stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In classical conditioning, what will happen if a conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)?

<p>The conditioned response (CR) will diminish and eventually stop occurring (extinction). (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the capacity of long-term memory?

<p>Unlimited for practical purposes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Following the extinction of a conditioned response, what phenomenon describes the reappearance of the response after a period of rest?

<p>Spontaneous recovery (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Remembering the capital of France is an example of ______ memory, while remembering your graduation ceremony is an example of ______ memory.

<p>Semantic; Episodic (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best distinguishes operant conditioning from classical conditioning?

<p>Operant conditioning involves learning through consequences, whereas classical conditioning involves learning through associations. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of long-term memory is most closely associated with skills and habits?

<p>Non-declarative memory (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A marketing company initially uses a celebrity endorsement to promote a product. Over time, consumers begin to associate the positive feelings about the celebrity with the product itself, even without seeing the advertisements. This is an example of:

<p>Stimulus generalization (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A researcher trains a rat to press a lever for a food reward. After the rat consistently presses the lever, the researcher stops providing food. Initially, the rat presses the lever more frequently, but eventually stops altogether. The rat's eventual ceasing of lever presses demonstrates what?

<p>Extinction (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

After successfully extinguishing a dog's conditioned response to a bell, the response suddenly returns a week later when the bell is rung again. This return illustrates primarily:

<p>Spontaneous Recovery (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios demonstrates stimulus discrimination?

<p>A dog that only salivates to the sound of its owner's specific whistle. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios best illustrates the 'New Memory for Old' theory, also known as Displacement Theory?

<p>Forgetting where you parked your car in a large parking lot after repeatedly moving it while shopping. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is the 'New Memory for Old' theory primarily associated with short-term memory (STM) rather than long-term memory (LTM)?

<p>STM has a limited capacity, making it vulnerable to displacement, while LTM has a virtually unlimited capacity. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between 'repression' as described by Freud and the more general term 'motivated forgetting'?

<p>Repression specifically involves blocking threatening or painful memories from consciousness, while motivated forgetting encompasses a broader range of reasons for forgetting. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario exemplifies cue-dependent forgetting?

<p>A student studies for a test in a noisy environment and then struggles to recall the information in a quiet classroom. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is the LEAST effective strategy for improving memory?

<p>Focusing solely on memorizing facts without understanding their meaning. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does 'overlearning' contribute to improved memory retention?

<p>It strengthens the neural connections associated with the information, making it more resistant to forgetting. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A student is preparing for an exam. They create flashcards, relate the concepts to real-life examples, take regular study breaks, and test themselves frequently. Which memory-enhancing strategies from the text are they employing?

<p>Adding meaning and monitoring their learning. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best illustrates the memory principle of encoding information in more than one way?

<p>Creating a song or rhyme to remember a list of historical dates. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience or practice.

Readiness to Learn

Learning is most effective when the learner is ready physically, mentally, and emotionally.

Practice and Exercise

Students retain information longer when they have meaningful practice and exercise.

Emotion and Learning

Learning is strengthened by pleasant feelings and weakened by unpleasant feelings.

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Primacy in Learning

The first things learned create a strong, lasting impression.

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Recency in Learning

Things most recently learned are best remembered.

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Motivation's Role

Motivation enhances the effectiveness of learning; stronger motives lead to greater effort.

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Psychological Wellbeing

Learner's worries/doubts/fears, feelings of loneliness /isolation, and inferiority/humbleness hinders learning; whereas self-respect, self-reliance, and self-confidence are necessary for effective learning.

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Prior Knowledge Activation

Bring related facts from previous courses to new learning.

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Optimal Learning Period

Learning periods should avoid extremes, balancing adequate practice and preventing fatigue.

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Distributed Learning

Spreading learning over time with breaks leads to better retention than cramming.

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Behavioral Learning Theory

Learning through observable behavior and environmental factors.

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Stimulus-Response Learning

Learning occurs through stimulus-response associations and their consequences.

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Behavioral Acquisition

Acquiring new behaviors through conditioning processes.

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Conditioning

Association between an environmental event and an organism's response.

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Classical Conditioning

Learning involuntary emotional or physiological responses to stimuli.

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Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without prior learning.

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Unconditioned Response (UCR)

A natural, untrained response to an unconditioned stimulus.

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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A neutral stimulus paired with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a response.

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Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

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Substitution learning

A neutral stimulus becomes a substitute for the natural stimulus.

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Stimulus Association

Responses to the unconditioned stimulus become associated with the conditioned stimulus.

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Classical Conditioning - Stage 1

Before training, the Conditioned Stimulus does not cause a reaction, but the Unconditioned Stimulus does

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Classical Conditioning - Stage 2

During training, pairing the conditioned Stimulus with the Unconditioned Stimulus to make the subject learn.

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Stimulus Generalization

When a conditioned stimulus evokes a response to similar stimuli.

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Stimulus Discrimination

The ability to differentiate between similar stimuli.

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Extinction (Classical Conditioning)

The diminishing of a conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent.

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Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period.

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Operant Conditioning

Learning through the consequences of behavior.

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Operant Conditioning Mechanism

Voluntary response is strengthened or weakened based on consequences.

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Reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior by rewarding it.

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Operant Conditioning Focus

Environmental consequences are central to this type of learning.

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Sensory Memory

Briefly holds sensory input, acting as a buffer before selection for attention.

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Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory; fleeting afterimage.

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Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory; lingers slightly longer.

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Short-Term Memory (STM)

The active part of memory; holds contents of our attention.

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STM Characteristics

Active, rapidly accessible memory that preserves sequence but has limited capacity.

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Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Memory system for relatively permanent, meaningful information storage.

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Declarative (Explicit) Memory

Conscious recall of facts/events that can be verbalized.

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Semantic Memory

Factual knowledge (word meanings, math).

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Displacement Theory

New information wipes out old information in memory.

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Motivated Forgetting

Forgetting due to blocking threatening or painful memories from consciousness

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Cue Dependent Forgetting

Forgetting due to the lack of effective retrieval cues.

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Multi-Modal Encoding

Encoding information in multiple ways to improve memory.

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Add Meaning

Making information personally relevant to enhance memory.

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Take Your Time

Minimizing interference to help consolidate memory.

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Overlearn

Studying information even after it appears mastered.

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Monitor Your Learning

Regular monitoring and testing to assess learning progress.

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Study Notes

Learning and Learning Theories

  • Learning involves a relatively permanent change in behavior
  • This occurs as a result of experience or practice
  • This change isn't due to illness, fatigue, maturation, or intoxicants
  • It's also not due to biological factors, but rather experience or practice
  • Learning is a continuous modification of behavior throughout life
  • Learning is pervasive and affects all aspects of human life
  • Learning involves the whole person (socially, emotionally, and intellectually)
  • It's often a change in the organization of experiences and is responsive to incentives
  • Learning is an active and purposeful process that relies on maturation, motivation, and practice
  • It's also multifaceted
  • Individuals learn best when physically, mentally, and emotionally ready
  • Learning is strengthened by pleasant feelings and weakened by unpleasant ones
  • Things learned first make a strong impression that is difficult to erase
  • Recently learned things are best remembered.

Factors Influencing Learning

  • Motivation, maturation, and health are key factor
  • Psychological well-being, good working conditions, and background experiences are also key to consider
  • Appropriate length of working periods and distributed learning also influence outcomes
  • The stronger the motivation, the greater the effort
  • High motivation leads to enthusiasm
  • Nero-muscular coordination is important for learning tasks
  • Individuals need to be in good health in order to learn
  • Sensory defects, underfeeding, and toxic conditions can hinder learning

Behavioral Learning Theory

  • Emphasizes observable behavior and the environment
  • Learning occurs through stimulus-response associations
  • Acquisition of new behavior occurs via conditioning
  • Conditioning associates environmental stimuli with organism responses
  • The two major types are classical and operant conditioning

Classical Conditioning Theory

  • Focuses on making involuntary emotional or physiological responses to stimuli that normally elicit no response
  • Conditioned reflexes are involved
  • To demonstrate it, stimuli and responses must first be identified
  • Neutral stimulus, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest
  • Unconditioned stimulus naturally brings about a particular response without being learned
  • Unconditioned response is natural and needs no training
  • Conditioned stimulus is a neutral stimulus paired with an unconditioned stimulus that brings about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus
  • Conditioned response is a response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus
  • The theory represents a process where a neutral stimulus gains the characteristics of a natural stimulus by pairing with it
  • Stimulus Generalization occurs when stimuli similar to the original stimulus produce the same response
  • Stimulus Discrimination is the ability to distinguish between two similar stimuli
  • Extinction occurs when a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, and the conditioned response diminishes
  • Spontaneous Recovery is the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after rest periods with no further conditioning

Operant Conditioning Theory

  • Organisms learn through the consequences of their behavior
  • Voluntary responses are strengthened or weakened based on favorable or unfavorable consequences
  • Environmental consequences are at the heart
  • Operant conditioning is more flexible and potentially more powerful than classical conditioning
  • Behavior can be modified through reinforcement (strengthening) and punishment (weakening)
  • Reinforcement strengthens a response, while punishment weakens it
  • Positive reinforcement adds a pleasant stimulus, and negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant stimulus

Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules

  • Fixed-interval schedules provide reinforcement after a fixed time.
  • Variable-interval schedules provide reinforcement after a variable time.
  • Fixed-ratio schedules provide reinforcement after a fixed number of responses.
  • Variable-ratio schedules provide reinforcement after a varying number of responses.

Social Learning Theory

  • Learning occurs through observation, modeling, imitation, and mimicking
  • Steps of observational learning are attention, retention, production, and motivation

Cognitive Learning Theory

  • Cognitive learning may take two forms
  • Latent learning is one that occurs, but is not evident in behavior until later
  • Insight learning is a cognitive process where the perception of a problem is reorganized

Memory

  • Memory is the retention of what is learned over time
  • Three basic steps are encoding, storage, and retrieval

Stages/Structure of Memory

  • Memory has three structures: sensory, short-term, and long-term
  • Sensory memory is the entry way to memory and acts as a holding bin
  • It retains information until the mind selects what to pay attention to from stimuli
  • It gives brief time to decide whether information is extraneous or important
  • Includes visual (iconic) and auditory (echoic) components
  • Visual lasts for one second, auditory lasts for up to two seconds
  • Short-term memory (STM) holds the contents of our attention
  • Unlike sensory memories, short-term memories are not brief replicas of the environmental message
  • STM consist of the by-products or end results of perceptual analysis
  • It is active, rapidly accessible, preserves the temporal sequence of information, and has limited capacity
  • Long-term memory (LTM) is for the permanent storage of meaningful information
  • LTM's capacity seems to have no known limits and can last for a life time
  • Two broad types are declarative and non-declarative

Factors Affecting Memory

  • Ability to retain, good health, learner age, maturity, and desire to remember all help with memory
  • Intelligence, interest, overlearning, speed of learning, meaningfulness of material, and sleep or are all key

Forgetting

  • Psychologists use the term forgetting to refer to the apparent loss of information already encoded and stored in the long-term memory. Theories of forgetting includes:
  • Decay Theory, Interference, New memory for old / displacement, motivated, and cue dependent

Improving Memory

  • Pay attention
  • Encode information in more than one way
  • Add meaning
  • Take the time needed
  • Over learn
  • Monitor your learning

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Explore the core principles that define effective learning. Understand the factors, such as motivation and environment, that significantly impact learning outcomes. Grasp the importance of neuro-muscular coordination and addressing feelings of isolation to enhance the learning process.

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