Pre-Historic and Stone Ages

Pre-Historic Period

• This period has no written records as evidence.
• Early humans used stone tools, thus the name "Stone Age" for this era.
• Divided into Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic Ages.

Palaeolithic Age (Early or Old Stone Age)

• Also known as the Ice Age , the Earth was covered in snow.
• People hunted, gathered wild fruits, and foraged vegetables.
• Tools were rough, unpolished stones, and shelter consisted of caves and rock shelters.
• Agriculture, fire, and pottery were unknown.
• Homo sapiens emerged during the period.
• Robert Bruce Foote discovered the handaxe in Pallavaram.

Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age)

• Tools were microliths, including cresconic blades and stone scrapers.
• Microliths were first discovered in Mirzapur district, Uttar Pradesh rock shelters.
• The people hunted, fished, gathered food, and domesticated animals later on.
• Rajasthan's Bagor is a significant Mesolithic site.
• Other crucial sites: Bhimbetka, Adamghar (Madhya Pradesh), Bagor (Rajasthan), Sarai Nahar Rai (Uttar Pradesh).

Neolithic Age (New Stone Age)

• Crop cultivation of ragi, horse gram (kulati), fruits, and corn began during the Neolithic Age.
• Cattle, sheep, and goats were domesticated.
• Mud and reeds were used to build rectangular or circular houses, leading to a more settled way of life and civilization's origins.
• Mehrgarh is the Indian subcontinent's earliest known village.
• Boat construction, cotton spinning, wool spinning, and cloth weaving were all known to Neolithic people.
• Well-known locations include Chirand (Bihar), Burzahom (Jammu and Kashmir), and Koldihawa (Uttar Pradesh).
• With the end of the Neolithic Age came the end of the Stone Age.

Chalcolithic Age (Copper Age)

• Metals, like bronze and copper, were used and is why it's also known as the Copper Age.
• The Copper Age dates from 1800 BC to 2500 BC.
• Also known as the Pre-Harappan Phase, marked by cattle rearing and rural settlements.
• Hunting, fishing, and farming was used for sustenance and hunting was vital.
• Copper and its alloys were used for knives, axes, fishing hooks, chisels, pins, and rods.

Iron Age (1500 BCE - 200 BCE)

• Succeeded the Bronze Age and Indus Valley Civilisation within the Indian subcontinent.
• Painted Grey Ware (1300-300 BCE) and Northern Black Polished Ware (700-200 BCE) were part of the Iron Age archaeological cultures.
• The arrival of Aryans and the Vedic period, as well as Buddhism and Jainism, occurred during the Iron Age.

Indus Valley Civilisation

• Also known as Harappan Civilisation, thrived along the flood plains of the Indus, Ghaggar-Hakra, and Northwest India / Eastern Pakistan.
• It extended from Northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and Northwest India.
• A Bronze Age civilization dating from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE, in South Asia's Northwestern regions.
• The first Indus Valley Civilisation site was discovered by Dayaram Sahni at Harappa in 1921.
• RD Bannerjee discovered Mohenjodaro in 1922 and Sir John Marshal assisted in excavating these locations.
• Radiocarbon dating suggests a period of 2500-1750 BC.
• Harappan people knew copper, bronze, silver, lead, tin and gold but not iron.

Geographical Extent

• The Indus Valley Civilisation encompassed regions of Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and parts of Western UP.
• The northernmost site was Manda (Jammu and Kashmir) and Daimabad (Maharashtra) was the southernmost.
• The easternmost was Alamgirpur (UP) and Sutkagendor (Baluchistan) was the westernmost.

Town Planning

• A grid system divided towns into large rectangular or square blocks.
• Presence of lamp posts indicates street lighting.
• Main streets ran North-South, secondary streets ran East-West.
• Burnt bricks were used for construction, while other civilizations used mud bricks.
• Drains were made of mortar, lime, and gypsum, covered with brick slabs making for easy cleaning.

Agriculture

• Wheat, barley, rye, peas, sesame, mustard, rice (in Lothal), cotton, dates, melon, etc were cultivated.
• The Indus people were the first to produce cotton.
• Animals, like sheep, goats, and pigs were domesticated.
• Wooden ploughs were used to plough fields in Kalibangan.
• Trade was conducted with the Sumerians and foodgrains were stored in granaries.

Art and Craft

• Bronze was created through copper and tin mixture.
• Copper and bronze were mostly used in toolmaking.
• Copper for bronze production was sourced from Khetri in Rajasthan while tin originated from Afghanistan.
• Cotton fabrics were popular, and woolen fabrics were used in winter.

Religious Life

• The primary deity was the Mother Goddess.
• Phallus (lingam) and yoni were worshipped.
• Trees (pipal), animals (bull), birds (dove, pigeon) and stones were also worshipped, including the Unicorn.
• Idolatry was practiced, though temples were not discovered.

Script

• The Indus script is pictographic, not alphabetical.
• Clay and stone tablets with written inscriptions were found at Harappa.

End or Decline of Indus Valley Civilisation

• Various factors contributed to the decline, including Aryan invasions, recurrent floods, social divisions, earthquakes, and ecological changes.
• The Vedic Period happened after the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Vedic Period

• The Aryans migrated from Central Asia to the Indian sub-continent in stages from 2000 BC to 1500 BC.

Early Vedic Period (1500BC-1000BC)

• Vedic literature including Vedas was composed at this time in India.

Geographical Extent

• The Aryans inhabited the Sapta-Sindhu region, known as the Land of Seven Rivers.

Society

• Kula (family) was the basic societal unit and a group of kula formed a Grama (village).
• Society was divided into four varnas: Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaisya, Shudra.
• Monogamy was common, polygamy was practiced by royalty and noble families.

Polity

• Tribal assemblies called samiti elected the king.
• The Sabha was an important political institution and was a council of elders.
• The purohita was the king's religious advisor.

Economy

• The Aryans employed a mixed economy (pastoral and agricultural) revolving around cattle.
• Cows became especially important.
• The standard exchange unit was the cow.
• Barter system initially used, later coins (nishka) came into use.

Religion

• Natural forces like Earth, fire, wind, rain, thunder were worshipped by personifying them.
• The most important deity was Indra (thunder).
• Other deities were Prithvi (Earth), Agni (fire), Varuna (rain), Vayu (wind), Usha and Aditi (female deities).
• Temples and idol worship did not exist.

Later Vedic Period (1000BC-600BC)

• The Aryans started expanding their territory.

Polity

• Smaller kingdoms merged to form large kingdoms.
• The divine origin theory of kingship was followed, according to Taittariya Brahmana.
• The king's power grew stronger, and they performed sacrifices like Rajasuya, Vajapeya, and Ashwamedha to enhance their position.
• The term Rashtra, indicating territory, appeared.

Geographical Extent

• Aryan settlements covered almost all of Northern India during the later Vedic period.
• The centre of culture shifted from Saraswati to Ganges.

Society

• The Varna system grew more distinct, heredity gained more importance than occupation.
• Society came to consist of Brahmanas (priests), Kshatriyas (rulers), Vaishyas (agriculturists, traders, artisans), and Shudras (servants).
• The institution of gotra arose for the first time; status declined, and women were not allowed to attend political assemblies.

Religion

• Prajapati (the creator) became the supreme god.
• As the preserver and protector of the people, Vishnu was imagined.
• The priestly clan increased in power and dictated ritual practices.
• Prayers decreased importance, rituals and sacrifices elaborated, and yajnas became intricate ceremonies.

Vedas

• The word "veda" means knowledge so Vedic literature consists of Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads.
• The Rig Veda is the oldest religious text and was composed during the Early Vedic Age; the other Vedas then came during the Later Vedic Age.
• The Rig Veda contains 1,028 hymns (suktas), divided into 10 mandals, containing the Gayatri Mantra.
• The Sama Veda has 1810 hymns and is a compilation of verses about music.
• There are two primary Yajur Veda texts which detail how to perform rituals including: the Shukla Yajur Veda and the Krishna Yajur Veda.
• The former contains mantras, while the latter contains commentary in prose.
• The Atharva Veda is divided into 20 khandas with 730 hymns on magic, charms, and spells.

Upanishads

• Indian philosophy finds its source in 108 Upanishads known as Vedanta.

Brahmanas

• Prose commentaries on Vedic hymns with the Satapatha Brahmana attached to Yajurveda, recommending one hundred sacred paths.

Aranyakas

• Vedic scriptures are explained by sages dwelling in the forest in the form of Aranyakas
• Aranyakas possess magical power and conclude the Brahmanas.

Vedangas

• The limbs of the Vedas, and contain Shiksha (pronunciation), Kalpa (rituals), Vyakarana (grammar), Nirukta (etymology), Chhanda (metrics), and Jyotisha (astronomy).
• Panini wrote Ashtadhyayi (4th century BC) on Vyakarana (grammar).

Upavedas

• There are four Upavedas including: Dhanurveda (art of warfare, from Yajurveda), Gandharvaveda (art and music, from Samaveda), Shilpaveda (architecture, from Atharvaveda), and Ayurveda (medicine, from Rigveda).

Philosophy

• Six systems of Indian philosophies have been given by ancient India’s six philosophers: Nyaya (analysis) by Gautama, Vaisesika by Kannada, Sankhya (enumeration) by Kapila, Yoga (application) by Patanjali, Purva Mimansa (enquiry) by Jaimini, and Uttara Mimansa (vedanta) by Vyasa/Badarayana.

Puranas

• Consist of myths, cosmology, legends, folk belief, law codes, and miscellaneous topics.
• They detail the change from sacrifice to idol worship and the visual appeal of deities against abstract ideas.

Epics

• The Mahabharata, written by Ved Vyas, predates the Ramayana, originally consisting of 880 verses which expanded into 24,000 over time.
• The Ramayana was written by Valmiki.
• In its inception, it consisted of 6,000 verses which grew to 12,000 and then 24,000.
• The Vedic Age (1500 BC-600 BC) marked the growth of religions like Buddhism and Jainism, followed by the rise of Mahajanapadas.

Mahajanapadas

• The Janapadas were Vedic India's main kingdoms where the Aryans were powerful tribes called Janas.
• Buddhist and Jain literature mentions the 16 Mahajanapadas. People had greater allegience janapadas, territories, or the Jana or tribes that they belonged.
• Asmaka was their southernmost located area.
• Vajji was a confederacy of eight republican clans.
• Lichchhavi is the oldest republic.

Mahajanapadas and Capitals

• Anga's capital was Champa (Bhagalpur and Mungher district of Bihar)
• Avanti's capital was Mahishmati, Ujjain (Malwa)
• Assaka or Asmaka's capital was Potali, Poddana or Potana (Near Paithan in Maharashtra) (River Godavari)
• Chedi's capital was Suktimati or Sotthivati (River Ken) (Bundelkhand area)
• Gandhara's capital was Taxila (Between Kabul and Rawalpindi)
• Kamboj's capital was Rajapur or Hataka (Hazara district of Pakistan)
• Kashi's capital was Varanasi (Varanasi district, UP)
• Kosala's capital was Sravasti and Ayodhaya (Saket) (Eastern UP)
• Kuru's capital was Hastinapur and Indraprastha (Ganga Yamuna doab) (Delhi-Meerut region)
• Magadha's capital was Girivrajs, Rajagriha and Pataliputra (Patna and Gaya district of Bihar)
• Malla's capital was Kushinagara and Pava (South of Vaishali district, UP)
• Matsya's capital was Mathura (aipur-Bharatpur-Alwar district)
• Panchala's capital was Ahichhatra, Kampilya (Ganga-Yamuna doab) (Rohilkhand)
• Surasenas' capital was Potali, Poddana or Potana (Mathura region)
• Vatsa's capital was Kaushambi (River Yamuna) (Allahabad and Mirzapur district in UP)
• Vajji's capital was Vaishali (Vaishali district, Bihar)

Buddhism

• Founded by Gautama Buddha.
• He was born in Lumbini (near Kapilavastu) in Nepal in 563 BC.
• His father, Suddhodana, was the Saka ruler.
• Gautami, his stepmother, raised him due to his mother’s passing 7 days after his birth.
• He married Yashodhara at 16 and has a son named Rahul.
• After witnessing an old man, a sick man, a corpse, and an ascetic, he renounced his former life.
• He attained ''Nirvana'' at 35 in Gaya (Bihar) under the Pipal tree.
• At Sarnath, he delivered his first sermon known as Dharmachakrapravartan (Turning of the Wheel of Law).
• Gautama Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana at 80 in Kushinagar (UP) in 483 BC.

Dhamma (Teachings of Buddhism)

• The world is full of suffering, caused by desire; eliminating desires ends it, done by following the Eight Fold Path.
• The Eight Fold Path encompasses right faith, thought, action, livelihood, efforts, speech, remembrance, and concentration.
• Nirvana can be achieved when ones worldly desires cease, and freedom is attained from the soul.
• One should not inflict upon themselves Ahimsa.
• A man reaps what he sows, through law of Karma.
• The three key jewels of Buddhism were: Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha.

Buddhist Councils

• Council 1 - Time: 483 BC, Place: Rajagriha, Head: Mahakassapa, King: Ajatshatru
• Council 2 - Time: 383 BC, Place: Vaishali, Head: Sabakami, King: Kalashoka
• Council 3 - Time: 251 BC, Place: Pataliputra, Head: Mogaliputta Tissa, King: Ashoka
• Council 4 - Time: 72 AD, Place: Kashmir, Head: Vasumitra, King: Kanishka

Jainism

• Founded by Mahavira, there were 24 tirthankaras in total including: Rishabhanath (whose emblem was the bull) and Parshwanath (the snake).
• Vardhman Mahavira (whose emblem was the Lion), was born in Kundagram Vaishali (Muzaffarpur, Bihar) in 599 BC. Both parents were royalty.
• He married Yashodhara, fathering Priyadarsena, whose spouse became his earliest disciple.
• In 527 BC near Patna, at the age of 72 he passed at Pava, upon gaining understanding.
• Jains are split into Digambara and Svetambara sects.

Teachings of Mahavira

• He believed in karma and transmigration soul and rejected and non-violance.
• Achieved salvation through penance.
• Encouraged equality.
• Agamas hold the teaching of Mahavira.
• The Jaina theory of may be is known as Syadavada.
• The Jain doctrine of mayness of reality is Anekantavada. Three Ratnas of Jainism:
• Right faith (Samyak Vishwas)
• Right knowledge (Samyak Gyan)
• Right conduct (Samyak Acharan) Five principles:
• Injury (Ahimsa)
• Truth (Satya)
• Non-stealing ( Asteya)
• Non-possession (Aparigraha)
• Celibacy (Brahmacharya) Mahavira added the last principle with Parsvanath's initial 4.

Jain Councils' Location

• First Council began in the third century BC in Pataliputra held by Sthulbhadra.
• Second Council held by Devridhigani in the fifth-century AD in Vallabhi (Gujarat).

The Magadha Empire

• It was founded by Jarasandha that saw the Haryanka dynasty came to power due to the battles by Magadha, Kosala, Avanti, and Vatsa.

Haryanka Dynasty

• Bimbisara, who was alive at the same time as Buddha founded the real dynasty, with Rajgir as his capital (surrounded by five hills).
• Kosala and Vaishali faced defeat due to the great Haryanka king Bimbisara.
• Ajatashatru was the successor who killed his father to seize the throne.
• Udayin founded the new capital at Pataliputra (confluence Ganga and Son)
• The regions grew to the North to Kuru while to the West to Narmada regions.

Shishunaga Dynasty

• Sishunga then became minister after the reign of the Haryanka king Nag-Dasak who saw success with destrution of Avanti.

Nanda Dynasty

• Mahapadma Nanda added Kalinga and destroyed other leaders.
• Alexander attacked during the reign of the last dynasty.

Alexander's Invasion

• Alexander was king from Macedon who won against kingdom Porus.
• When reaching Beas Alexander's soldiers forced him to retreat building alters before passing at Babylon.

Maurya Dynasty

• Chandragupta Maurya with aid from Chanakya establishing the rule of the Maurya Dynasty in 321 BC.
• Parts of Afghanistan were yielded when Chandragupta defeated Seleucus and made a marriage alliance.
• Chandragupta, now adopting Jainism died of starvation as well with Bhadrabahu.
• Bindusara succeeded his death in 297 BC.

Ashoka

• Ashoka gave up military conquest (Bherighosa) and gave favour to cultural conquests (Dhamma ghosha.
• After 261 BC after seeing bloodshed due to the battle of Kalinga.
• Ashoka's inscripted languages: Brahmi, Kharoshthi, Aramaic and Greek.
• James Princep made inscription decipherment.

Post-Mauryan Dynasties

• Dynasty and founder; Pushyamitra was founder of the Shunga Dynasty, Simuka of the Satavahana Dynasty, and Vasudeva of the Kanva Dynasty.
• Notable Dynasty's included; the Indo-Greeks dynasty with Menander, Gondophernes Parthians, and Kanishka Kushanas

Gupta Dynasty (319-540 AD)

• Established by Sri Gupta, it was founded in the 3rd century AD.

Chandragupta-1 AD (319-335)

• Married and gave power with Kumaradevi.
• Ruled up Pradesh and Bengal with part of Bihar.

Samudragupta (335-375 AD)

• Court poet Harisena detail the great Gupta enargements.
• He went undefeated known as Napoleon due historian Vincent Smith.

Chandragupta-II (380-414 Ad)

• Fa-Hien made visit to Uiiain under great admiration with Chandragupta rule which fixed near Delhi.
• At his courty nine gems was adorned under Chandragupta II.

Kumaragupta

• Nalanda University sees foundation.
• inscriptions detail performing Asvamedha with Damador.

Skandagupta (455-467 ad)

• The Huns then saw the split of the Gupta.

Harshavardhana

• Thaneshwar then Kannauj was the captial under Harshavardhana.
• Pulakesin-II struck at Narmada in 620AD with decline due to decline from.
• Heun Tsang gave descriptions of Harsh reign with Banabhatta writing about the Harsha's life.

Rashtrakutas

• In 752 Dura occupied all terrotires.
• They was known for building cave shrine and Ellora.

Pallavas & Cholas

• Capital was based out with their origin based from Kanchi, as Hindu's with dynasty with Vishnu.
• The northern part was ruled by Vishnu with Rajaraia in the height of powers.

Palas

• Bengal became a power that lasted.

Islamic Invasion

• Qasim struck in 712 as well during the invasion.

Delhi Sultanate

• The Mahmud of Ghazni saw five dynastyies form with plains.

Ghazni

• In 1001 Ghazni attached then Anandpala.
• Qutub-ud-din plundered a Shiv.s in 1025 before passing in 1206.

lutmish(1210-1236)

• As a slave he occupied in 1211 that saw Lahore capital.
• Silver (Tanka) and organizes before commpletion on the structure of Qutub Minar.
• Razia then became the only lady in 1240.
• Balban abolished and introduced a festival along with Diwan.

Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320)

• Devagiri saw an attachment in 1294. Shahana sought in the offices.

Tuglhaq Dynasty (1320 - 1414)

• He led to the death as he built in the city but had troubling times.

Muhammed

• Know Arabic setting a new for Diwam's.
• Shah setup places for Muslims.

Jayad Dynasty

• Shah proclaimed him a ruler before Surat under Shah.
• Mubarakbad city was buit on the rever and didn't survive until Alah.

Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526 AD)

• As a Sardar he ruled by Delhi for year expanding and taking on titles that brike walamukhi images.

Sikandar

• Gaz shifted, Ibrahim lodhi lost in the Battle of Panipat.

Mughal empire

• Babur took control being succeeded by Hamayun until defeated by Sher Shah before Akbar.

Akbar

• There was also Din-i-Allahi with a tomb and more.

Jahangir

• Jahan succeeded with two English visits.

Aurangeel

• Called Zinda and captured him before being moved to various movemnbts.

Ramaniya

• Said it best with devotion.

Guru Nanak

• It's formless with and Quran.

Kabir

• Then sought from Allah towards Hindu and Islam.

Maha

• Then travelled across Vishnu.

Meerabl

• Famous for following and singing.

Surdas

• Then led him along rhadha.

Vallabha

• Made dedication out of Brahm.

Tulsi

• Saita have to follow for the rest of his life.

Maratha state " "Shivaji

• Under dynasty he was born at Ford but leaded at shivaji and Jiija with Ramdas.
• Afzal was deported to Bijapur but then was elected where the AAugalo followed.

Sambhaji

• Sambhaji got support aurangleb with Tarabai who defeated Bahadur Shah.

Advdent

• Portuguese came as merchants in 16 th century.

Portuguese

• Gama reached ruling before being followed by Dutch then Enlgish in Queen.

Company

• Was formed and saw open press.

Danes

• Came in in 1616 as settlers in the language.

Dalhousie

• Railways and public worked was started due to communication issues like the French.

Curzon

• The Indian University was the appointed by the commision which Deprived and brought down to partition.
• Lord Minto: Records were started under the new act.

Cornwalli

• Was the first due to code with Weliselly adopting control.

William

• He removed power which was an end of government.

Lord Hardinge

• Sought due to contrio make power as a member.

###Chelmsford

• It killed for the people to unite as Lord Reasing and Jinnah to come together.

Well

• Then saw war breaking for his power.

Mauntebatten

• Meant power and revolt as India's the freedom.

Causes from 1857

• Insutled under pressure they grew up and followed with Bahadur and spread at Delhi.

Chelmsford

• Thos were all key points from history and had high level impact