Pre-Columbian Science and Technology

Evidences of Science and Technology During Pre-Columbian Times

• The era spans from 1500 B.C. to A.D. 1500 in the New World

Olmec Civilization

• Regarded as the first great Mesoamerican civilization
• Flourished along the southern Gulf Coast of Mexico
• Existed mainly in the present-day states of Veracruz and Tabasco from approximately 1200 to 400 B.C
• The name "Olmec" translates to "rubber people" in Nahuatl, the Aztec language
• City-temple complexes were built at San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan, La Venta, Tres Zapotes, and Laguna de los Cerros
• Evidence indicates the practice of human sacrifice and cannibalism
• Key trade items included obsidian, ceramics, jade, serpentine, mica, rubber, pottery, feathers, polished mirrors of limenite, and magnetite
• Produced major Olmec art, including masks and figurines
• Cultivated cacao, rubber, and salt

Maya Civilization

• The ancient Mayans were a diverse group of indigenous people
• They inhabited parts of modern-day Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras
• Credited with remarkable scientific achievements
• Excelled in astronomy, engineering, medicine, and mathematics
• Made significant advancements in agriculture and technology
• Tracked the movements of stars and planets
• Accurately predicted celestial events like eclipses
• Venus was the most important astronomical object
• An accurate calendar was developed based on a 260-day count
• Each day was named like days of the week, using 20 day names represented by symbols
• Use a written language composed of approximately 800 glyphs or symbols
• Each glyph can represent a word or syllable
• Glyphs are combined to make different meanings
• Built elaborate temples and great cities without metal tools and produced rubber products.

Aztec Civilization

• Emerged in 1325 A.D. with the establishment of their city, Tenochtitlan
• Tenochtitlan is present-day Mexico City
• Served as the capital and center of the Aztec Empire
• Functioned as the capital until the Aztecs were conquered by Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes in 1520
• Aztecs viewed an eagle perched on a cactus on marshy land near Lake Texcoco's southwest border as a sign to build their settlement
• Early in the city's history, Aztecs constructed causeways and canals for transportation to and from the city
• Known as violent people who expanded their empire through warfare
• Practiced human sacrifice in elaborate rituals, removing beating hearts to appease gods
• The Aztecs developed dugout canoes for transportation
• They transported goods throughout the canals, lakes, and waterways in the valley of Mexico
• Aztec astronomy was an important component of their calendar, reflecting their gods

Aztec Calendar

• Consisted of a 260-day ritual cycle
• The 'Counting of the Days' or Tonalpohualli, was likely based on astronomical observations
• Calendar broken down into units called trecenas, which consist of 20 days
• Each day had its own name, symbol, patron deity, and augury
• The 20-day group ran simultaneously with another group of 13 numbered days
• The 'Counting of the Years' or Xiuhpohualli calendar, indicated when religious ceremonies and festivals should be held
• Divided into 18 groups of 20 days, with each group having its own festival
• The Aztec ritual and civil cycles aligned every 52 years
• 52 years was celebrated as the Binding Up of the Years

Aztec Medicine

• Was an advanced field
• Medicines were available in various forms, including ointments and drinks
• Aztec technology has been recorded in the Badianus Manuscript
• The Badianus Manuscript was created by Aztec artists in 1552

Inca Civilization

• Flourished in the Andean region of South America
• Ruled from the early 15th century A.D. until their conquest by the Spaniards in the 1530s
• Machu Picchu is among the most famous surviving archaeological sites and served as a retreat for an Incan emperor
• Machu Picchu means "Old Peak" or "Old Mountain" in the Quechua language
• The compound of Machu Picchu contains over 100 separate flights of stairs
• The Inca Empire was known as Tawantinsuyu or the "Land of the Four Corners"
• It was the largest empire of Inca
• Originated at the city of Cuzco, now Peru
• A system of roads stretched to almost 25,000 miles
• Quechua was their official language

The Four Regions of the Inca Empire

• Chinchaysuyu (north region): Contained the empire's most important agricultural region, including modern-day Peru, Ecuador, and part of Colombia
• Antisuyu (east region): Upper Amazon region, a rainforest environment. Characterized by heavy rainfall, high humidity, and lush vegetation
• Contisuyu (west region): Vertical slopes rise from sea level to 19,000 feet in altitude; a land of dramatic peaks, volcanoes, and deep gorges
• Collasuyu (south region): Known for high plains and herding; contained extensive grassland, ideal for llama and alpaca herding; Source of salt, potatoes, gold, silver, and copper
• They were rich in maize or corn, dried llama, coca leaves, and alcohol
• Other consumable goods include sweet potatoes, quinoa, beans, and chili peppers
• Mummification was an important part of Inca funerary rites
• November was a time when people fed the mummies of their ancestors
• Cumpi were the finest Inca textiles
• Cumpi was reserved for the Inca nobility and the emperor
• Clothes were woven out of wool from dried llama and alpaca, or vicuna wool and cotton
• Objects in Incas were made out of gold and silver
• Incas used gold to make ritual objects, trinkets, and jewelry
• The Incas created combinations of gold and silver, and gold and copper (called tumbaga)
• Their craftsmen fitted building stones together perfectly without using any mortar
• Inca Trapezoid Windows and Inca 12 Angle Stone
• Inca Calendars were essentially lunisolar
• Two calendars were maintained in parallel (one solar and one lunar)
• The calendar observed equinoxes, solstices, and Venus cycles
• Twelve lunar months fall 11 days short of a full 365-day solar year
• Used quipu as mnemonic devices to record data or literature
• Successfully performed skull surgeries involving cutting holes in the skull to alleviate fluid buildup
• The Inca's base measurement was based on human body parts
• The base measurement were fingers, the distance from thumb to forefinger, palms, cubits, and wingspans
• Thatkiy (or thatki) or one pace was the most basic unit of distance
• The Inca used bronze or bone-tipped spears
• Two-handed wooden swords with serrated edges
• Stone clubs and spiked metal heads
• Woolen slings and stones
• Stone or copper-headed battle axes and Bolas (fastened to lengths)

The State of Science and Technology During the Middle Ages

• Medieval times, the Middle Ages, and the Dark Ages generally align from 500 to 1500 A.D
• The Medieval period covers the time from the fall of the Roman Empire to the rise of the Ottoman Empire
• The Medieval period saw major technological advances

Military Technologies

• The trebuchet was a revolutionized siege weapon using counterweights to hurl huge stones
• Was first used in the eastern Mediterranean basin
• The longbow with massed, disciplinary archery was used by the English in the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453)
• The longbow was powerful, accurate and contributed to the demise of the medieval knight class
• The steel crossbow was the first handheld mechanical crossbow
• A European innovation came with several different cocking aids to enhance draw power
• The complete full plate armor appeared at the end of the 14th century
• The armor chain was made from thousands of metal rings, and hauberk, a long clock
• Considered best in personal armor for body protection and showcased metal-working skills

Other Inventions of The Middle Ages

• The blast furnace or cast iron first appeared in the middle Europe around 1150
• The hourglass was a dependable, affordable, and accurate measure of time
• Vertical windmills are a pivot-able post mill efficient at grinding grain or draining water
• Spectacles are composed of convex lenses to aid far-sighted vision
• Chess originated in India in the 6th century
• The game spread through Persia and the Muslim world to Europe and evolved into its current form by the 15th century
• Mirrors were made in 1180 by Alexander Neckham
• Alexander Neckham suggested removing the lead behind the glass to remove the image
• Oil paint, introduced using stable oil mixture, was invented by Flemish painter Jan van Eyck around 1410
• Agricultural innovations, Heavy Wheeled Plough was important in the cultivation of rich, heavy, often wet soils, improving agricultural practices
• A heavy horse ploughs required strong beasts of burden
• Strong work animals was encouraged by the horse collar
• The horse collar allowed more horse pulling power with heavy ploughs
• Horseshoes adapted horses to rocky terrain and encouraged heavier loads
• Artesian wells was composed of a cutting edge at the base
• Underground water pressure forces water up the hole without pumping
• Artesian wells are named as such for Artois, a region in France
• A Wheelbarrow was used in construction, mining, and farming for carrying materials from place to place

Other Medieval Innovations

• By 1000s, the first universities were developed
• By 1100s, modern universities emerged throughout Western Europe, including Oxford and Cambridge in England
• In the 14th century, a plague called the Black Death came
• A crisis sparked quarantine techniques, introduced in 14th century
• 40 day periods to prevent the spreading of the diseases.
• Republic of Ragusa started the quarantine, in the 14th century