Positive Reinforcement: Module 5

Module 5: Positive Reinforcement

• A type of behavior followed by reinforcement will result in an increased future frequency of that behavior.
• A stimulus is presented contingent on a response, increasing the future probability of the response.
• The future increase in the response is a critical feature in defining reinforcement.
• Positive reinforcement happens when a response is immediately followed by presenting a stimulus, leading to more frequent similar responses in the future.
• Positive reinforcement is a stimulus presented as a consequence, responsible for subsequent increases in responding.
• Behaviors followed by presenting a stimulus, with a future increase in the behavior are called consequence stimuli reinforcers.
• Reinforcement is not a circular concept.

Module 5: Antecedent Stimuli and Reinforcement

• There is a temporal relation between antecedent variables, responses, and consequences.
• Antecedent variables become discriminative stimuli (SDs).
• A response is more likely to occur in the future in the presence of these stimuli.

Reinforcement and Motivating Operations

• Establishing Operations (EO) increase a stimulus's effectiveness as a reinforcer and usually involve decreased access to the stimulus (deprivation).
• Abolishing Operations decrease a stimulus's effectiveness as a reinforcer and usually involve increased access to the stimulus (satiation).

Reinforcement Concepts

• The person does not have to know about the behavior/reinforcement relation for it to work.
• Reinforcement works with a strong temporal relation between the response and the consequence.

Immediacy of Reinforcement and Reinforcement Delay

• It is critical that the consequence is delivered immediately following the target response.
• Delays in reinforcement does not necessarily reinforce the target behavior.
• Delays in reinforcement can cause instructional control/rule governed contingency.
• Rules are verbal descriptions of a behavioral contingency.
• Rules allow delayed consequences to influence behavior.

Rule-Governed Behavior

• Indicators include no apparent immediate consequence.
• Response-consequence delays are greater than 30 seconds.
• Behavior increases without known reinforcement.
• A large increase in the frequency of behavior follows one instance of reinforcement.

Superstitious Behavior

• Superstitious behavior occurs when reinforcement accidentally follows a behavior that did not produce reinforcement.

Automatic Reinforcement

• Automatic reinforcement occurs independent of another person delivering it.
• The response itself produces the reinforcement.
• This does not mean the behavior is automatic; rather, the consequences are delivered automatically.

Common Mistakes in Describing Reinforcement

• Reinforcing the person
• Practice reinforcement for a skill
• Artificial reinforcement
• Reinforcement and feedback as synonyms

Types of Reinforcement

• Unconditioned reinforcers are stimulus changes that function as reinforcement without prior learning history.
• Conditioned reinforcers are neutral stimuli that acquire the capability to function as reinforcers through stimulus-stimulus pairing with one or more unconditioned reinforcers.
• Generalized conditioned reinforcers are conditioned reinforcers that, as a result of having been paired with many unconditioned and conditioned reinforcement, do not depend on a current EO for their effectiveness.

Formal Properties of Reinforcers

• Edible
• Sensory
• Tangible
• Activity
• Social

Stimulus Preferences

• It is important to identify reinforcers empirically because staff, parents, teachers, and sometimes even the clients themselves are often wrong.
• Open-ended questions, asking about specific items, choice format, and rank-ordering are methods of asking the target person.
• Asking significant others and offering a pre-task choice are alternative methods.

Free Operant Observation

• Observe and record what activities the target person engages in when they have unrestricted choice of activities.
• There is no response requirement.
• All stimuli are available within sight and reach.
• Items are never removed.
• It can be contrived or naturalistic.

Contrived Free Operant Observation

• Provide the learner with non-contingent exposure to each item.
• Place all items in view and within reach.
• Observe a set period of time and record the duration of time the target person engages with each stimulus item.

Naturalistic Free Operant Observation

• Conduct this in an everyday environment as unobtrusively as possible, such as recess.
• Observe for a set period of time.
• Record the duration of time a target person engages with each stimulus item/activity.

Trial Based Methods

• Present selected stimuli to the client in a series of trials.
• Measure approach (e.g., eye gaze, hand reach), contact (touch, hold), and/or engagement (interacting with stimulus).
• You can categorize preferences as high, medium, and low.

Stimulus Presentation

• Single: Present stimuli one at a time, in order, and record the target person's reaction to it.
• Single stimuli is well suited for individuals who have difficulty selecting among two or more stimuli.
• Paired: Present two stimuli simultaneously and ask the target person to choose one.
• Each stimulus is matched to every other stimulus in the set, and you rank preferences from high, medium, to low.
• Multiple: Present an array of three or more stimuli together.
• Present selected stimulus to client in a series of trials.
• Measure approach (ex; eye gaze, hand reach), contact (touch, hold) and or engagement (interacting with stimulus).
• You can categorize as high, medium, and low preferences.

Reinforcer Assessment

• Concurrent Schedule: Put two stimuli against each other and observe which procedures produce the large increase in responding.
• Multiple Schedule: There are two or more component schedules of reinforcement for a single response with only one component schedule in effect at a given time
• An SD signals the presence of each component schedule and is present while that component is in effect.

Reinforcer Assessment Part Two

• Progressive-Ratio Schedule: Preference may change when response requirements increase.
• Progressive-ratio schedules provide a framework for assessing relatives effectiveness of a stimulus as a reinforcement as responsible increase.
• Response requirements are systematically increased over time until responding declines.

Control Procedures

• Noncontingent Reinforcement: An antecedent intervention in which stimuli with known reinforcement properties are delivered on a fixed-time (FT) or variable-time (VT) schedule independent of the learner's behavior.

Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior

• Delivers reinforcement contingent on the problem behavior not occurring throughout intervals of time (interval DRO) or at specific moments of time (momentary DRO)

Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior

• Reinforces occurrences of a desirable alternative behavior to the problem behavior and withholds reinforcement for the problem behavior.

Using Reinforcement Effectively

• Use easily achieved criterion, high-quality reinforcers of significant magnitude, and varied reinforcers.
• Use direct rather than indirect reinforcement.
• Reinforce each occurrence of the behavior initially.
• Use contingent attention and descriptive praise.
• Gradually increase the response-reinforcement delay and shift from contrived to naturally occurring reinforcers.

Negative Reinforcement

• If a response produces the removal, termination, reduction, and postponement of a stimulus, which leads to increase future occurrences of that response it is negative reinforcement.
• If there is an increase in the behavior in the future followed by the removal of a stimulus, then the consequence stimuli are negative reinforcers.

Escape and Avoidance (Part of Negative Reinforcement)

• Escape contingency: A response terminates an ongoing stimulus.
• Avoidance contingency: A response prevents or postpones the presentation of a stimulus.
• Discriminated avoidance is a behavior that is preformed when a specific cue signals the potential to avoid a stimulus.
• Free operant avoidance is avoidance that is performed without a cuing stimulus.

Applications of Negative Reinforcement

• Acquisition and maintenance of appropriate behavior.
• You may use error -correction strategies- task is repeated until it is completely correct
• Acquisition and maintenance of problem behavior.

Application of Negative Reinforcement

• Extinction of behavior maintained by negative reinforcement.
• Behavior replacement strategies- teaching other methods of escape and avoidance.
• Have unpleasant effects and can alter aversive elements of the environment, which may be more desirable
• Differential positive reinforcement- offering positive reinforcement for completing tasks or remaining in the environment.

Ethical Considerations for Negative Reinforcement

• For negative reinforcement to work, there must be something aversive to escape or avoid emitting the behavior.
• Ableism is not allowing clients to escape or avoid aversive environments.
• It is important to address aversive elements of the environment

Module 6: Types of Punishment

• Punishment has occurred when a response is followed immediately by a stimulus change that decreases the future frequency of similar responses.
• Positive punishment involves the presentation of a stimulus that decreases the frequency of a behavior.
• Negative punishment involves the removal of a stimulus that decreases the frequency of a behavior.
• If one action is punished, there is usually some alternative that avoids punishment.
• Stimuli communicate that punishment is available or a punishment contingency is in place are known as discriminative stimuli for punishment.

Punishemtnt

• An unconditioned punisher is a stimulus whose presence functions as punishment without having been paired with other punishers.
• A conditioned punisher is a stimulus whose presence functions as punishment as a result of a person's conditioner history.
• A generalized conditioned punisher is a stimulus change that has been paired with many unconditioned and conditioned punishers over the course of a lifetime (no, stop, a frown).

Factors That Influence Punishment Effectiveness

• Immediacy - The sooner the consequence follows behavior the more effective
• Intensity/Magnitude - The more intense, the more response suppression.

Possible Side Effects and Problems of Punishment

• Emotional and aggressive reactions
• Escape and avoidance
• Behavior may change one component of a multiple results that increase or decrease another component of the schedule,
• Undesirable modeling
• Negative reinforcement of the punishment agents behavior

Reprimand

• Reprimand is any verbal or sound consequence that decreases the likelihood of the behavior occurring in the future.
• Sometimes, reprimands can serve as reinforcement.
• This can occur any time that the behavior is reinforced by peer or adult attention.

Response Blocking

• Intervening as soon as the behavior starts to prevent the completion of the response.
• Side effects of response blocking can include aggression and resistance to the procedure.
• RIRD a procedural variation of response blocking that includes interruption stereotypic behavior at onset and redirecting the individual to do high-p request instead.

Contingent Exercise

• Required to do a response that is not topographically related to the target behavior .
• Behaviors that contingent exercise has been proven to be effective for: Various self-stimulatory behaviors, Stereotypic behaviors, Disruptive, Aggressive, self-injurious behavior

Overcorrection

• You are required to do a response that is topographically directly or logically related to the target behavior.
• Restitutional overcorrection involves fixing the environment and the additional behavior that makes it vastly better.
• Posititive practice overcorrection is repeating performing the correct form of the behavior.

Guidelines for Using Punishment Effectively

• Use selective effective and appropriate punishers, deliver the punisher at the begging of a behavioral sequence, and punish each instance of the behavior initially.
• Gradually shift with a response-to-punishment delay and supplement punishment with complimentary intervention.
• Be prepared for negative effects
• Records graph and evaluate data daily

Punishment by Removal of a Stimulus

• Negative punishment involves the removal of a stimulus that decreases the frequency of a behavior.
• Timeout from positive reinforcement involves the withdrawal of the opportunity to earn positive reinforcement or the loss of access to positive reinforcers for a specified time.

Types of Timeout

• Nonexclusion timeout means the participant is not completely removed from the time-in setting.
• Exclusion timeout means the participant is removed from the time-in setting.

Nonexlusion Timeout

• Planned Ignoring: contingent on the occurrence of an inappropriate behavior, the opportunity to earn social reinforcers usually attention, physical contact, or verbal interaction is removed,
• Termination specific reinforcement contact each occurrence of the target behavior immediately stops an activity or sensory reinforcer,
• Contingent observation: The person is repostined within an existing setting such that they can observe ongoing activities, but access to available reinforcers is lost.
• Partition; selection space time out The student remains within the time-in setting, but their view within the setting is restricted by a panel or cubicle or select space is arranged to serve as the time-out area

Exclusion timeout

• Time-out response any confined, safe, secure, supervised, and continuously monitored area within the participants normal educational or treatment facility that is devoid of existing positive reinforcers, that does not have access to potential positive reinforcers, that does not have access to potential positive reinforcers and which the person can be securely placed.
• Hallway timeout student is directed to leave the classroom and sit (or stand) outside the classroom in the hallway or corridor until the time-out period expires.

Desirable Aspects of Time-Outs

• ease of application.
• acceptability.
• repaid suppression of behavior.

How to Use Time Out Effectively

• Time in must be reinforcing/ enriching (want to come back to class needs to happen).
• Define behaviors that lead to time out, define time out procedures and duration, and define exit criteria.
• Decide non exclusion/exclusion and explain the time out rules.
• Obtain permission, apply the time out constantly, and evaluate the effectiveness.
• Consider other options and note legal and ethical issues.

Response Cost

• The loss of a specific amount of reinforcement occurs from it.
• Desirable aspects include a moderate to rapid decrease in behavior, convenience, and the ability to comb with other approaches.
• Bonus response cost means to make additional reinforcement available noncontingent, but then remove some when the target behaviors occurs,.

Suing Response Cost Effectivley

• Determine the immediate response of the fines
• Are you using a response cost or bonus response cost
• Ensure there is a reinforcement reserve
• Recognize the potential for unplanned or unexpected outcomes
• Avoid overuse
• Keep records

Considerations of Response Cost;

• Increased aggression
• Avoidance
• Collateral reductions of desired behavior
• Calling attention to the punished behavior
• Unpredictably

Module 7: Compound Schedules of Reinforcement

• Concurrent Schedules: Reinforcement occurs when two or more contingencies of reinforcement operate independently and simultaneously for two or more behaviors.
• Multiple Schedules: Reinforcement occurs in an alternating, usually random sequence and can be identified by the discriminative stimulus.
• Chained Schedules: Much like the multiple schedules, the chained schedule is a sequence that relies on discriminative stimulus; however, the order is not random – it is always the same.

What is a Schedule of Reinforcement?

• A rule that describes a contingency of reinforcement.

Intermittent Reinforcement

• There are many intermittent schedules of reinforcement (INT) between continuous reinforcement and extinction.
• Some, but not all, occurrences of the behavior produce reinforcement with an intermittent schedule of reinforcement.
• To maintain behavior after terminating treatment and to progress to naturally occurring reinforcement will warrant it.

Types of Schedules

• Ratio schedules require a number of responses before one response produces reinforcement.
• Interval schedules require an elapse of time before a response produces reinforcement.
• Fixed schedule means the response ratio or time requirement remains constant.
• Variable schedule means the response ratio or time requirement can change from one reinforced response to another.

Fixed Ratio (FR)

• Schedule of reinforcement requires the completion of a number of responses to produce a reinforcer.
• Consistency- little hesitation the post-reinforcement pause
• Post Reinforcement pause- person doesn't respond for a period of time following reinforcement (influence) by size of ratio and reinforcement magnitude)
• Rate of response- high rates of response

Variable Ratio

• Requires the completion of a variable number of responses to produce a reinforce.
• Consistency is consistent and steady.

Fixed Interval Schedules (FI)

• Provides reinforcement for the first response following a fixed duration of time.
• FI scallop- how it looks on a cumulative graph
• Rate of repose- slow to moderate

Variable Interval Schedules (VI)

• Provides reinforcement for the first correct response following the elapse of variable durations of time.
• Consistency- constant and stable.
• Rate of responding- low to moderate.
• Limited Hold: When a limited hold is added to an interval schedule, reinforcement remains available for a finite time following the elapse of the the Fl or VI interval.

Schedule Thinning

• First, gradual thinning can occur by increasing the response ratio or the duration of the time interval.
• Ratio strain can result from abrupt increases in ratio requirements when moving from denser to thinner reinforcement schedule.
• You can expect in a ratio strain Avoidance, aggression, and unpredictable.

Variations on the Basics

• Differential reinforcement of higher rates (DRH): reinforcement of responses higher than a predetermined criterion.
• Differential reinforcement of low rates (DRL): reinforcement of responses lower than a predetermined criterion.
• Differential reinforcement of diminishing rates(DRD): provides reinforcement at the end of a predetermined time interval when the number of responses is less than a criterion that is gradually decreased across time intervals based on the individuals performance.
• Progressive schedule of reinforcement: Systematically thins each successive reinforcement opportunity independent of the particular behavior.

Compound Schedule of Reinforcement

• Can occur simultaneously with or without discriminative stimuli.
• functions as a reinforcement contingency for each element independently, or a contingency formed by the combination of all elements.

Concurrent Schedules

• occur when (a) two or more contingencies of reinforcement (b) operate independently and simultaneously (for two or more behaviors)
• Typically, the rate of responding is proportional to the rate of reinforcement received from each choice alternative in a concurrent schedule.

Discriminative Schedules of Reinforcement

• Multiple schedule (mult): presents two or more basic schedules of reinforcement in an alternating, usually random, sequence.

• Chained schedules (chain) similar to multiple schedule but differs in three ways

• Always in the same order

• Can be for the same or different behaviors for each element

• Conditioned reinforcement for responding in one element is the presentation of the next element

• Mixed schedules (mix) identical to mult except there is no discriminative stimuli correlated with the independent schedule

• Mixed schedules (mix) identical to mult except there is no discriminative stimuli correlated with the independent schedule

• Mixed schedules (mix) identical to mult except there is no discriminative stimuli correlated with the independent schedule

Tandem Schedule

• Tandem schedule (tand): identical to chained but does not use discriminative stimuli with the elements for the chain
• tandem schedule (tand): identical to chained but does not use discriminative stimuli with the elements for the chain
• tandem schedule (tand): identical to chained but does not use discriminative stimuli with the elements for the chain

Schedules Combing the Number of Responses and Time

• Alternative schedule (alt) provides reinforcement whenever the requirement of either a ratio schedule or an interval schedule is met
• Conjunctive schedule (conj) whenever reinforcement follows the completion of the response requirements for both a ratio schedule an an interval schedule of reinforcement
• Conjunctive schedule (conj) whenever reinforcement follows the completion of the response requirements for both a ratio schedule an an interval schedule of reinforcement

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) Study Guide with Examples: Reinforcement Concepts

• Positive reinforcement: Adding a stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., giving a child candy for cleaning their room)
• Reinforcement: Any stimulus that increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again,
• Rule-governed behavior: Behavior controlled by verbal statements about consequences rather than direct experience
• Automatic reinforcement: When a behavior produces its own reinforcement (e.g., scratching an itch)
• Unconditioned reinforcement Naturally reinforcing stimuli that require no learning (e.g., food, water)
• Conditioned reinforcement Learned reinforcers associated with unconditioned reinforcers (e.g., money)
• Generalized conditioned reinforcement A reinforcer associated with multiple reinforcers (e.g., praise, tokens)
• Classify reinforcer Categorizing reinforcers as primary (unconditioned) or secondary (conditioned)

Preference Assessments

• Stimulus preference assessments Methods to determine preferred reinforcers
• SS (Single Stimulus) Present one item at a time.
• PS (Paired Stimuli) Present two items and have the individual choose MSWO (Multiple Stimuli Without Replacement) Present multiple items, remove chosen ones
• FO (Free Operant) Allow free access to items and measure engagement
• Contrived free operant Structured environment for assessing preferences
• Naturalistic free operant Observation in a natural setting

Negative Reinforcement & Avoidance

• Negative reinforcement Removing an aversive stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., taking aspirin for a headache).
• Escape vs. avoidance
• Escape Behavior removes an aversive stimulus (e.g., turning off loud music)
• Avoidance Behavior prevents an aversive stimulus from occurring (e.g., leaving early to avoid traffic).
• Discriminated avoidance A specific cue signals that avoidance behavior is necessary
• Unconditioned negative reinforcers Naturally occurring aversive stimuli that don't require learning (e.g., pain)

Reinforcement Schedules

• Continuous reinforcement (CRF)
• Reinforcement is given for every response.
• Extinction (schedule) Previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced.
• Intermittent schedules of reinforcement Reinforcement given after some, but not all, responses.

Ratio Schedules: Based on the Number of Responses

• Fixed ratio (FR) Reinforcement after a set number of responses (e.g., FR-5 = reinforcement every 5 responses).
• Variable ratio (VR) Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., slot machines).
• Interval schedules Based on the passage of time
• Fixed interval (FI) Reinforcement after a set time period (e.g., FI-5 minutes)
• Variable interval (VI) Reinforcement after an unpredictable time period

Additional Concepts

• Post-reinforcement pause A break in responding after receiving reinforcement )
• Limited hold Reinforcement is only available for a specific time after the interval has elapsed)
• Differential reinforcement
• DRL (Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates) Reinforcing lower rates of behavior