Podcast
Questions and Answers
Population genomics examines the amount of genetic variation within ______.
Population genomics examines the amount of genetic variation within ______.
populations
A group of organisms that belong to a particular species living and interbreeding at the same place at a certain time defines a ______.
A group of organisms that belong to a particular species living and interbreeding at the same place at a certain time defines a ______.
population
Microevolution involves change within a species or small group over a ______ period of time.
Microevolution involves change within a species or small group over a ______ period of time.
short
Macroevolution refers to major evolutionary change over ______ periods of time.
Macroevolution refers to major evolutionary change over ______ periods of time.
Speciation is the formation of new and ______ species in the course of evolution.
Speciation is the formation of new and ______ species in the course of evolution.
Gregor Mendel is known for his work in ______ inheritance.
Gregor Mendel is known for his work in ______ inheritance.
The gene pool includes all of the genetic material including all combinations of genes at a given ______.
The gene pool includes all of the genetic material including all combinations of genes at a given ______.
Charles Darwin is associated with the concept of ______ evolution.
Charles Darwin is associated with the concept of ______ evolution.
The bottleneck effect is characterized by a sharp reduction in size of a population due to environmental ______ events.
The bottleneck effect is characterized by a sharp reduction in size of a population due to environmental ______ events.
The bottleneck effect results in a population restored from a gene pool ______ than before.
The bottleneck effect results in a population restored from a gene pool ______ than before.
The founder effect occurs when a new population is established from a very ______ number of individuals.
The founder effect occurs when a new population is established from a very ______ number of individuals.
Allele frequency can be calculated using the formula ______ + q = 1.
Allele frequency can be calculated using the formula ______ + q = 1.
Before an environmental event, the allele frequency of B was ______ or 0.45.
Before an environmental event, the allele frequency of B was ______ or 0.45.
After the environmental event, the proportion of allele B increased to ______ or 0.75.
After the environmental event, the proportion of allele B increased to ______ or 0.75.
The frequency of allele b can be determined by calculating ______ = 1 - p.
The frequency of allele b can be determined by calculating ______ = 1 - p.
A larger starting population generally provides more ______ variation than a smaller one.
A larger starting population generally provides more ______ variation than a smaller one.
The fundamental measurement of allele frequency represents the portion (%) of a gene pool made of a certain ______.
The fundamental measurement of allele frequency represents the portion (%) of a gene pool made of a certain ______.
In the context of genetics, phenotype refers to the observable characteristics, while genotype explains the ______ makeup of an organism.
In the context of genetics, phenotype refers to the observable characteristics, while genotype explains the ______ makeup of an organism.
The Hardy-Weinberg Equation helps in determining the frequency of a particular allele or ______ in a population.
The Hardy-Weinberg Equation helps in determining the frequency of a particular allele or ______ in a population.
In the Hardy-Weinberg equation, the expression p2 represents the frequency of the homozygous ______ genotype.
In the Hardy-Weinberg equation, the expression p2 represents the frequency of the homozygous ______ genotype.
Genetic equilibrium occurs in populations that meet certain conditions, including no genetic drift and no ______.
Genetic equilibrium occurs in populations that meet certain conditions, including no genetic drift and no ______.
Genetic drift is the change in the frequency of an existing gene allele due to ______ sampling of organisms.
Genetic drift is the change in the frequency of an existing gene allele due to ______ sampling of organisms.
The alleles B and b denote dominant and ______ alleles, respectively.
The alleles B and b denote dominant and ______ alleles, respectively.
The equation p + q = 1 helps to determine the frequency of dominant (p) and ______ (q) alleles in a population.
The equation p + q = 1 helps to determine the frequency of dominant (p) and ______ (q) alleles in a population.
The new population can become genetically distinct both phenotypically and ______ from the original population.
The new population can become genetically distinct both phenotypically and ______ from the original population.
Extreme cases can lead to ______ and the subsequent evolution of new species.
Extreme cases can lead to ______ and the subsequent evolution of new species.
Gene Flow involves the movement of genetic variation from one population to ______.
Gene Flow involves the movement of genetic variation from one population to ______.
Non-random mating occurs with individuals who have a closer ______.
Non-random mating occurs with individuals who have a closer ______.
Random Mating mixes the genes in the gene pool for the next generation, while Non-random Mating favours some genes and traits over ______.
Random Mating mixes the genes in the gene pool for the next generation, while Non-random Mating favours some genes and traits over ______.
Natural Selection is often described as the survival of the ______.
Natural Selection is often described as the survival of the ______.
The ______ Effect can cause a new population to be genetically distinct from its source population.
The ______ Effect can cause a new population to be genetically distinct from its source population.
Stabilizing selection favors individuals with ______ phenotypes.
Stabilizing selection favors individuals with ______ phenotypes.
Directional selection occurs when individuals with traits on one side of the ______ survive better.
Directional selection occurs when individuals with traits on one side of the ______ survive better.
After migration, the allele frequency in Population 1 changes from B or p = 10/10 to ______ = 0.83.
After migration, the allele frequency in Population 1 changes from B or p = 10/10 to ______ = 0.83.
The equation for allele frequency is p + q = ______.
The equation for allele frequency is p + q = ______.
Disruptive selection favors individuals with traits on ______ sides of the mean.
Disruptive selection favors individuals with traits on ______ sides of the mean.
An example of stabilizing selection can be observed in ______ weight.
An example of stabilizing selection can be observed in ______ weight.
The environment selects against individuals with extreme ______.
The environment selects against individuals with extreme ______.
An example of directional selection is the length of a giraffe's ______.
An example of directional selection is the length of a giraffe's ______.
Genetic variations are crucial for ______ to occur among organisms.
Genetic variations are crucial for ______ to occur among organisms.
Population genomics is concerned with the hereditary makeup of ______.
Population genomics is concerned with the hereditary makeup of ______.
The concept of ______ evolution involves a gradual change within a species over time.
The concept of ______ evolution involves a gradual change within a species over time.
Natural selection can lead to the evolution of new ______ through speciation.
Natural selection can lead to the evolution of new ______ through speciation.
In terms of genetics, the gene pool represents all the ______ material in a given population.
In terms of genetics, the gene pool represents all the ______ material in a given population.
The ______ effect occurs when a new population is started by a small group from a larger population.
The ______ effect occurs when a new population is started by a small group from a larger population.
The term ______ selection describes a scenario where individuals with extreme traits are selected against.
The term ______ selection describes a scenario where individuals with extreme traits are selected against.
Directional selection occurs when individuals with certain ______ traits have a survival advantage.
Directional selection occurs when individuals with certain ______ traits have a survival advantage.
Gene flow is the transfer of genetic ______ from one population to another.
Gene flow is the transfer of genetic ______ from one population to another.
The portion (%) of a gene pool made of a certain ______ is known as allele frequency.
The portion (%) of a gene pool made of a certain ______ is known as allele frequency.
In the Hardy-Weinberg equation, the expression 2pq represents the frequency of the ______ genotype.
In the Hardy-Weinberg equation, the expression 2pq represents the frequency of the ______ genotype.
Genetic equilibrium pertains to genetics of non-______ populations.
Genetic equilibrium pertains to genetics of non-______ populations.
A change in the frequency of an existing gene allele due to random sampling of organisms is referred to as ______ drift.
A change in the frequency of an existing gene allele due to random sampling of organisms is referred to as ______ drift.
An equation used for determining the frequency of a particular allele or genotype in a population is called the ______-Weinberg equation.
An equation used for determining the frequency of a particular allele or genotype in a population is called the ______-Weinberg equation.
In genetics, individuals that have the same alleles are referred to as ______.
In genetics, individuals that have the same alleles are referred to as ______.
The conditions for genetic equilibrium are virtually ______ met in natural populations.
The conditions for genetic equilibrium are virtually ______ met in natural populations.
The letter 'p' in the Hardy-Weinberg equation usually represents the frequency of the ______ allele.
The letter 'p' in the Hardy-Weinberg equation usually represents the frequency of the ______ allele.
The ______ effect occurs when a new population is established from a very small number of individuals.
The ______ effect occurs when a new population is established from a very small number of individuals.
The ______ effect consists of a sharp reduction in size of a population due to environmental stochastic events.
The ______ effect consists of a sharp reduction in size of a population due to environmental stochastic events.
A new population established through the founder effect often exhibits a lack of ______ variation.
A new population established through the founder effect often exhibits a lack of ______ variation.
Environmental events can lead to a rapid ______ in population size, impacting allele frequency.
Environmental events can lead to a rapid ______ in population size, impacting allele frequency.
After a bottleneck event, the population is restored from a gene pool ______ than before.
After a bottleneck event, the population is restored from a gene pool ______ than before.
In allele frequency calculations, p + q = ______.
In allele frequency calculations, p + q = ______.
The process of gene migration involves the movement of genetic variation from one population to ______.
The process of gene migration involves the movement of genetic variation from one population to ______.
Before an environmental event, the allele frequency of B was calculated to be ______.
Before an environmental event, the allele frequency of B was calculated to be ______.
Non-random mating causes a non-random distribution of ______ in an individual.
Non-random mating causes a non-random distribution of ______ in an individual.
Genetic drift occurs due to ______ sampling of organisms, affecting allele frequencies over time.
Genetic drift occurs due to ______ sampling of organisms, affecting allele frequencies over time.
The founder effect occurs when a new population is established from a very small number of ______.
The founder effect occurs when a new population is established from a very small number of ______.
The equation for allele frequency is ______ + q = 1.
The equation for allele frequency is ______ + q = 1.
Extreme cases of genetic divergence can lead to ______, resulting in the evolution of new species.
Extreme cases of genetic divergence can lead to ______, resulting in the evolution of new species.
After migration, the allele frequency in a population can change, illustrating the effects of gene ______.
After migration, the allele frequency in a population can change, illustrating the effects of gene ______.
Mutations are a source of new genetic ______ in a population.
Mutations are a source of new genetic ______ in a population.
Natural selection is a mechanism of ______.
Natural selection is a mechanism of ______.
Stabilizing selection drives down population genetic ______.
Stabilizing selection drives down population genetic ______.
Directional selection favors individuals with traits on one ______ of the mean in their population.
Directional selection favors individuals with traits on one ______ of the mean in their population.
Disruptive selection favors individuals with traits on both _____ of the mean.
Disruptive selection favors individuals with traits on both _____ of the mean.
An example of stabilizing selection can be observed in human birth ______.
An example of stabilizing selection can be observed in human birth ______.
The rarest among the different selection types is ______ selection.
The rarest among the different selection types is ______ selection.
The fur color of rock pocket mice is an example of ______ selection.
The fur color of rock pocket mice is an example of ______ selection.
Directional selection can be observed in the neck length of a ______.
Directional selection can be observed in the neck length of a ______.
Which statement correctly defines microevolution?
Which statement correctly defines microevolution?
What is meant by the term gene pool?
What is meant by the term gene pool?
Which process is described as branching phylogeny?
Which process is described as branching phylogeny?
Which statement accurately represents the concept of gene flow?
Which statement accurately represents the concept of gene flow?
What is the primary focus of population genomics?
What is the primary focus of population genomics?
Which of the following best describes stabilizing selection?
Which of the following best describes stabilizing selection?
What distinguishes macroevolution from microevolution?
What distinguishes macroevolution from microevolution?
Which concept does Darwin's theory of evolution best illustrate?
Which concept does Darwin's theory of evolution best illustrate?
What is the main consequence of the Founder Effect in population genetics?
What is the main consequence of the Founder Effect in population genetics?
In gene flow, what happens to allele frequencies after migration?
In gene flow, what happens to allele frequencies after migration?
How does non-random mating affect allele distribution?
How does non-random mating affect allele distribution?
Which of the following statements is true regarding mutations?
Which of the following statements is true regarding mutations?
Which combination of allele frequencies indicate a genetic equilibrium?
Which combination of allele frequencies indicate a genetic equilibrium?
Which process describes the movement of genetic variation from one population to another?
Which process describes the movement of genetic variation from one population to another?
What does the Hardy-Weinberg equation assess?
What does the Hardy-Weinberg equation assess?
Which of the following correctly defines random mating?
Which of the following correctly defines random mating?
What characterizes the bottleneck effect in a population's gene pool?
What characterizes the bottleneck effect in a population's gene pool?
What is the outcome of the founder effect on genetic variation?
What is the outcome of the founder effect on genetic variation?
How is allele frequency calculated within a population?
How is allele frequency calculated within a population?
What happens to the allele frequency after a population experiences a bottleneck event?
What happens to the allele frequency after a population experiences a bottleneck event?
In terms of environmental impacts, what typically leads to the bottleneck effect?
In terms of environmental impacts, what typically leads to the bottleneck effect?
Which statement correctly describes the allele frequency before and after a bottleneck event?
Which statement correctly describes the allele frequency before and after a bottleneck event?
What is a likely characteristic of a population affected by the founder effect?
What is a likely characteristic of a population affected by the founder effect?
What could be a consequence of a severe bottleneck event on a population's future?
What could be a consequence of a severe bottleneck event on a population's future?
Which condition is NOT required for genetic equilibrium according to the Hardy-Weinberg principle?
Which condition is NOT required for genetic equilibrium according to the Hardy-Weinberg principle?
In the Hardy-Weinberg equation, what does the term $2pq$ represent?
In the Hardy-Weinberg equation, what does the term $2pq$ represent?
What is the effect of genetic drift on allele frequency in small populations?
What is the effect of genetic drift on allele frequency in small populations?
Which statement accurately describes allele frequency?
Which statement accurately describes allele frequency?
What does the Hardy-Weinberg equation primarily help determine?
What does the Hardy-Weinberg equation primarily help determine?
Genetic equilibrium does not occur when which of the following conditions is present?
Genetic equilibrium does not occur when which of the following conditions is present?
What is the significance of the symbols $p$ and $q$ in the Hardy-Weinberg equation?
What is the significance of the symbols $p$ and $q$ in the Hardy-Weinberg equation?
Which scenario best exemplifies genetic drift?
Which scenario best exemplifies genetic drift?
What type of selection favors individuals with traits on both sides of the mean?
What type of selection favors individuals with traits on both sides of the mean?
Which type of selection drives down population genetic diversity by favoring average individuals?
Which type of selection drives down population genetic diversity by favoring average individuals?
In directional selection, which of the following traits is favored?
In directional selection, which of the following traits is favored?
An example of stabilizing selection is related to which of the following?
An example of stabilizing selection is related to which of the following?
Which type of selection is least likely to lead to speciation?
Which type of selection is least likely to lead to speciation?
Which selection type can lead to greater adaptation by selecting against intermediate phenotypes?
Which selection type can lead to greater adaptation by selecting against intermediate phenotypes?
Which of the following is an example of directional selection?
Which of the following is an example of directional selection?
Natural selection is often summarized by which phrase?
Natural selection is often summarized by which phrase?
Which statement best describes microevolution?
Which statement best describes microevolution?
What is the correct definition of speciation in evolutionary biology?
What is the correct definition of speciation in evolutionary biology?
Which concept has been discredited concerning the evolution of organisms?
Which concept has been discredited concerning the evolution of organisms?
In the context of genetic variation, what does the gene pool represent?
In the context of genetic variation, what does the gene pool represent?
What does genetic drift primarily result from?
What does genetic drift primarily result from?
What is an example of stabilizing selection?
What is an example of stabilizing selection?
Directional selection is characterized by which of the following?
Directional selection is characterized by which of the following?
How does gene flow impact allele frequencies in a population?
How does gene flow impact allele frequencies in a population?
What is a consequence of non-random mating in a population?
What is a consequence of non-random mating in a population?
Which phenomenon is likely to lead to speciation the quickest?
Which phenomenon is likely to lead to speciation the quickest?
How does a mutation contribute to genetic diversity in populations?
How does a mutation contribute to genetic diversity in populations?
Which statement best describes the relationship between allele frequency and genetic equilibrium?
Which statement best describes the relationship between allele frequency and genetic equilibrium?
What best illustrates the founder effect?
What best illustrates the founder effect?
In the context of genetic variation, what is one result of gene migration?
In the context of genetic variation, what is one result of gene migration?
What impact does the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium have on allele stability in a population?
What impact does the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium have on allele stability in a population?
What characterizes the bottleneck effect?
What characterizes the bottleneck effect?
Which statement best describes the founder effect?
Which statement best describes the founder effect?
After a population experiences a bottleneck effect, what typically happens to the allele frequencies?
After a population experiences a bottleneck effect, what typically happens to the allele frequencies?
In the context of allele frequency, what does the equation p + q = 1 represent?
In the context of allele frequency, what does the equation p + q = 1 represent?
What is a common consequence of the founder effect?
What is a common consequence of the founder effect?
How does allele frequency typically change after a severe environmental event for a small population?
How does allele frequency typically change after a severe environmental event for a small population?
What can be an effect of a bottleneck on the genetic structure of a population?
What can be an effect of a bottleneck on the genetic structure of a population?
In what manner does a larger starting population affect genetic variation when compared to a smaller one?
In what manner does a larger starting population affect genetic variation when compared to a smaller one?
What does stabilizing selection primarily favor within a population?
What does stabilizing selection primarily favor within a population?
Which type of selection would likely lead to the evolution of new species?
Which type of selection would likely lead to the evolution of new species?
In directional selection, which of the following statements is true?
In directional selection, which of the following statements is true?
What effect does stabilizing selection have on genetic variation?
What effect does stabilizing selection have on genetic variation?
An example of which type of selection can be seen in the fur color of rock pocket mice?
An example of which type of selection can be seen in the fur color of rock pocket mice?
In the context of natural selection, what is most likely to happen to individuals with extreme phenotypes?
In the context of natural selection, what is most likely to happen to individuals with extreme phenotypes?
What characteristic of directional selection is highlighted in the evolution of the peppered moth?
What characteristic of directional selection is highlighted in the evolution of the peppered moth?
Which of the following statements correctly describes disruptive selection?
Which of the following statements correctly describes disruptive selection?
What does the Hardy-Weinberg equation specifically help to determine?
What does the Hardy-Weinberg equation specifically help to determine?
Which condition is NOT required for a population to achieve genetic equilibrium?
Which condition is NOT required for a population to achieve genetic equilibrium?
What does the term 'genetic drift' refer to in population genetics?
What does the term 'genetic drift' refer to in population genetics?
In the Hardy-Weinberg equation, what does the 'p2' term represent?
In the Hardy-Weinberg equation, what does the 'p2' term represent?
Which of the following statements is true about allele frequency?
Which of the following statements is true about allele frequency?
Which factor is a consequence of genetic flow between populations?
Which factor is a consequence of genetic flow between populations?
Which of the following conditions would likely disrupt the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?
Which of the following conditions would likely disrupt the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?
What is the role of the 'q' variable in the Hardy-Weinberg equation?
What is the role of the 'q' variable in the Hardy-Weinberg equation?
What does microevolution primarily involve?
What does microevolution primarily involve?
Which statement best describes speciation?
Which statement best describes speciation?
What is the main characteristic of macroevolution?
What is the main characteristic of macroevolution?
Which of the following hypotheses has been discredited?
Which of the following hypotheses has been discredited?
What is genetic drift primarily driven by?
What is genetic drift primarily driven by?
What represents the total genetic variation in a population at a given time?
What represents the total genetic variation in a population at a given time?
Which factor does NOT contribute to changes in allele frequency within populations?
Which factor does NOT contribute to changes in allele frequency within populations?
What does the Hardy-Weinberg Equation help determine?
What does the Hardy-Weinberg Equation help determine?
What condition is NOT required for a population to be in genetic equilibrium?
What condition is NOT required for a population to be in genetic equilibrium?
Which of the following best describes genetic drift?
Which of the following best describes genetic drift?
In the context of the Hardy-Weinberg equation, what does 'p' represent?
In the context of the Hardy-Weinberg equation, what does 'p' represent?
Which term describes the observable characteristics of an organism?
Which term describes the observable characteristics of an organism?
What is the significance of the expression '2pq' in the Hardy-Weinberg equation?
What is the significance of the expression '2pq' in the Hardy-Weinberg equation?
Which condition is indicative of genetic equilibrium?
Which condition is indicative of genetic equilibrium?
What does 'q' represent in the allele frequency equation 'p + q = 1'?
What does 'q' represent in the allele frequency equation 'p + q = 1'?
What type of selection favors individuals with extreme traits on both sides of the phenotypic spectrum?
What type of selection favors individuals with extreme traits on both sides of the phenotypic spectrum?
Which of the following is an example of stabilizing selection?
Which of the following is an example of stabilizing selection?
In directional selection, which phenotypes are favored?
In directional selection, which phenotypes are favored?
What is the main effect of stabilizing selection on genetic diversity?
What is the main effect of stabilizing selection on genetic diversity?
Which selection type is most likely to lead to speciation?
Which selection type is most likely to lead to speciation?
What is the primary mechanism of evolution known as the 'survival of the fittest'?
What is the primary mechanism of evolution known as the 'survival of the fittest'?
Which of the following is an example of disruptive selection?
Which of the following is an example of disruptive selection?
In what scenario is stabilizing selection most likely to occur?
In what scenario is stabilizing selection most likely to occur?
What can extreme cases of genetic distinction lead to?
What can extreme cases of genetic distinction lead to?
Which of the following accurately describes gene flow?
Which of the following accurately describes gene flow?
What mathematical expression represents the sum of allele frequencies in a population?
What mathematical expression represents the sum of allele frequencies in a population?
What effect does the founder effect have on a new population?
What effect does the founder effect have on a new population?
In the context of mating, what does non-random mating imply?
In the context of mating, what does non-random mating imply?
Which aspect is NOT affected by genetic mutations?
Which aspect is NOT affected by genetic mutations?
What is one direct consequence of selective non-random mating?
What is one direct consequence of selective non-random mating?
What characterizes the bottleneck effect in a population?
What characterizes the bottleneck effect in a population?
What is the primary consequence of the founder effect?
What is the primary consequence of the founder effect?
How does the allele frequency change after a bottleneck event?
How does the allele frequency change after a bottleneck event?
What is represented by the equation p + q = 1?
What is represented by the equation p + q = 1?
If allele B has a frequency p = 0.45, what is the frequency of allele b?
If allele B has a frequency p = 0.45, what is the frequency of allele b?
Which situation describes a case of the founder effect?
Which situation describes a case of the founder effect?
What effect can a larger starting population have on genetic variation?
What effect can a larger starting population have on genetic variation?
What does the bottleneck effect imply about the restored population?
What does the bottleneck effect imply about the restored population?
Flashcards
Population Genomics
Population Genomics
The study of genetic variation within populations and the factors that influence that variation.
Genetic Population
Genetic Population
A group of organisms that belong to the SAME species, live and interbreed in the same place at the same time.
Statistical/Mathematical Population
Statistical/Mathematical Population
A group of organisms identified by a shared characteristic for data analysis.
Microevolution
Microevolution
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Macroevolution
Macroevolution
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Speciation
Speciation
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Gene Pool
Gene Pool
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Orthogenesis
Orthogenesis
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Founder Effect
Founder Effect
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Non-Random Mating
Non-Random Mating
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Mutation
Mutation
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Allele Frequency Equation
Allele Frequency Equation
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Bottleneck Effect
Bottleneck Effect
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Bottleneck Effect
Bottleneck Effect
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Genetic Drift
Genetic Drift
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Genetic Drift
Genetic Drift
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Genetic Drift
Genetic Drift
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Allele Frequency
Allele Frequency
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Phenotype
Phenotype
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Genotype
Genotype
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Allele
Allele
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Dominant Allele
Dominant Allele
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Recessive Allele
Recessive Allele
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Hardy-Weinberg Equation
Hardy-Weinberg Equation
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Natural Selection
Natural Selection
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Stabilizing Selection
Stabilizing Selection
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Examples of Stabilizing Selection
Examples of Stabilizing Selection
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Directional Selection
Directional Selection
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Examples of Directional Selection
Examples of Directional Selection
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Disruptive Selection
Disruptive Selection
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Examples of Disruptive Selection
Examples of Disruptive Selection
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Genetic Variation
Genetic Variation
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Study Notes
Population Genomics
- Population genomics is a branch of genomics that examines variations in the genetic makeup of populations.
- It identifies the amount of genetic variation within populations and factors influencing that variation.
Defining a Population
- Genetic Definition: A group of organisms belonging to the same species, living in the same place, and interbreeding at a specific time.
- Statistical/Mathematical Definition: A group of organisms identifiable by shared characteristics used for data collection and analysis.
Dominant and Recessive Inheritance
- Gregor Mendel's work forms the basis of understanding dominant and recessive inheritance.
- Dominant traits are expressed even when only one copy of the relevant gene is present.
- Recessive traits only appear when both copies of the gene are present.
Natural Selection
- Natural selection is an evolutionary mechanism.
- It favors organisms better adapted to their environment, and these organisms are more likely to multiply.
- Gene changes that enhance survival increase in frequency over time.
Evolution of Evolution
- Orthogenesis: An outdated theory suggesting living things have a predetermined evolutionary pathway.
- Branching Phylogeny/Cladogenesis: The most contemporary evolutionary theory, suggesting species branch off from common ancestors.
Micro and Macroevolution
- Microevolution: Evolutionary change within a species or a small group of organisms over a short period.
- Macroevolution: Significant evolutionary changes across a long period, leading to the formation of new species.
- Speciation: The process of new species formation.
Gene Pool
- The gene pool contains all genetic material (genes and their combinations) within a species or population at a particular time.
- Allele Frequency: The portion (%) of the gene pool made up of a particular allele.
Genetic Terminology
- Phenotype: Observable traits (e.g., blue fur).
- Alleles: Different forms of a gene (e.g., B and b).
- Dominant allele (e.g., B)
- Recessive allele (e.g., b)
- Genotype: The genetic makeup of an individual (e.g., BB, Bb, or bb).
Hardy Weinberg Equation
- p + q = 1 (Sum of dominant (p) and recessive (q) allele frequencies = 1)
- p² + 2pq + q² = 1 (Sums of homozygous dominant (p²), heterozygous (2pq), and homozygous recessive (q²) genotype frequencies = 1)
- It is used to determine allele and genotype frequencies in a population.
Genetic Equilibrium
- Describes populations with stable allele and genotype frequencies.
- Specific conditions must exist for equilibrium to remain:
- No genetic drift

- No gene flow/migration

- Random mating

- No mutations
- No natural selection

- Extremely large population size
- These conditions (rarely) occur naturally.
Genetic Drift
- Genetic drift refers to a random fluctuation in the frequency of genes or alleles, especially in small populations.
- It leads to evolutionary changes.
- Common types of genetic drift:Â Â
- Founder effect
- Bottleneck effect
Founder Effect
- Formation of a new population from a small group of individuals originating from the original population.
- The new population demonstrates reduced genetic variation compared to the original population.
Bottleneck Effect
- A significant reduction in a population's size due to environmental factors, leading to a reduced gene pool.
- The reduced gene pool can affect the population's future evolution and potentially lead to extinction.
Gene Flow (Migration)
- The movement of genetic variation between populations.
- It can introduce new alleles into a population, or remove alleles.
Non-Random Mating
- Individuals choose mates based on traits, rather than randomly.
- This results in non-random allele distribution in a population.
Mutations
- Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence. These changes can be caused by errors during DNA replication, exposure to mutagens, or other factors.
- Mutations introduce new alleles and variety into a population.
- Mutation types include:
- Point mutations (substitutions)

- Insertion/deletion mutations (Indels)
Natural Selection
-
Natural selection (survival of the fittest) favors traits that improve survival and reproduction in a given environment.
-
Differential survival and reproduction result in a shift in gene frequencies over time.
-
Types of natural selection include:
- Stabilizing selection (favors the average phenotype)

- Directional selection (favors one extreme phenotype)

- Disruptive selection (favors both extreme phenotypes)
What Causes Variation
- Random mating: Diverse mate combinations create varied combinations of alleles.
- Random fertilization & recombination during meiosis lead to new allele combinations.
- Mutations: Changes in DNA sequence introduce new alleles.
Altering Genetic Equilibrium:
- A change in genetic equilibrium leads to evolution in a population.
- The Hardy–Weinberg principle is used as a baseline to compare or understand gene pools in actual populations.
Real-World Population Implications
- Populations display differences in genetic composition due to evolution and other factors.
- Factors influencing human populations include skill specialization, consanguinity (mating between related individuals), and disease transmission.
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