Pollination by Animals

Characteristics of Zoophilous Flowers

• Brightly colored, scentless, and produce nectar in large quantities to attract birds.
• Floral parts are tough and leathery to withstand the powerful impact of visitors.

Cheiropterophily (Pollination by Bats)

• Bats are nocturnal and attracted by the odor of flowers that open at or after dusk.
• Cheiropterophilous plants have flowers borne singly or in clusters away from leaves and branches.
• Flowers produce large quantities of nectar.

Pollination in Adansonia digitata

• The ball of stamens and the stigma project beyond the floral envelops.
• Bats hold the flower by clasping the stamen ball to its breast, and while taking nectar, its breast becomes laden with numerous pollen grains.
• Pollen floats freely at any depth due to its similarity to sea water.
• The stigma is large and long, allowing pollen to come in contact with it and coil around it, effecting pollination.

Zoophily (Pollination by Animals)

• Includes pollination by birds, bats, snails, insects, and other animals.
• Insects are well adapted to bring about pollination.
• Larger animals like primates, arboreal rodents, reptiles, and others have also been reported as pollinators.

Ornithophily (Pollination by Birds)

• Birds that regularly visit flowers and bring about pollination include humming birds, sun birds, and honey eaters.
• Ornithophilous flowers have large, tubular, cup-shaped, or urn-shaped flowers.

Types of Pollination

• Self-Pollination (Autogamy)
• Cross-Pollination (Xenogamy or Allogamy)
• Abiotic Agencies: Anemophily (Wind), Hydrophily (Water)
• Biotic Agencies: Cantharophily (Beetle), Phalaenophily (Moths), Mellitophily (Bees), Psychophily, Malacophily (Snails), Ornithophily (Birds), Chieropterophily (Bats), Myrmecophily (Ants)

Other Concepts

• Vegetative reproduction: Agamospermy
• Recurrent Apomixis: Adventive embryony, Diplospory, Apospory